View source for Principles of Interpretation

{{LevelZero}}{{HeaderInterpretation}}
==General Principles==

The purpose of statutory interpretation is to "ascertain legislative intent".<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Dineley|ftl1j|2012 SCC 58 (CanLII)|[2012] 3 SCR 272}}{{perSCC|Deschamps J}} (4:3){{atL|ftl1j|44}} ("Statutory interpretation aims to ascertain legislative intent, which is a shorthand reference to the intention which the court reasonably imputes to Parliament in respect of the language used... . The courts ascertain legislative intent by reading legislative language in context and in its grammatical and ordinary sense, harmoniously with the scheme and purpose of the legislation at issue:..." [quotation marks and citations omitted])
</ref>

; Original vs Purposive Meaning
The wording in a statute "must be construed as they would have been the day after the statute was passed".<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Perka|1lpfj|1984 CanLII 23 (SCC)|[1984] 2 SCR 232}}{{perSCC|Dickson J}}{{Atps|264 to 265}} ("The doctrine of ''contemporanea expositio'' is well established in our law. “The words of a statute must be construed as they would have been the day after the statute was passed…")<br>
cf. {{CanLIIR|Brady|5str|1998 ABCA 7 (CanLII)}}{{perABCA|Cote JA}}{{atL|5str|7}} ("Courts should interpret legislation purposively and contextually. The court should look at their context, overall wording, apparent legislative scheme, and the evil aimed at (where the latter is admissible). For example, what if the wording of a statute is reasonably open to two interpretations, only one of which will advance the general legislative scheme, is workable, and will not cause any injustice? The court will probably choose the workable and fair interpretation.")
</ref>
This is because the words required context to understand and that context must be what existed at the time of the enactment.<ref>
{{ibid1|Perka}}{{Atps|264 to 265}} ("Since a statute must be considered in the light of all circumstances existing at the time of its enactment it follows logically that words must be given the meanings they had at the time of enactment, and the courts have so held")<br>
{{CanLIIRP|DWL|gs0p6|2016 SCC 22 (CanLII)|[2016] 1 SCR 402}}{{perSCC|Cromwell J}}
</ref>

Where the wording is "scientific or technical" then broad interpretation would "do violence" to the intent of Parliament.<ref>
{{ibid1|DWL}}{{atL|gs0p6|61}}
</ref>

However, not all terms in statutes are "confined to their original meanings" and may be "capable of growth and development to meet changing circumstances". "Statutory categories" will include things that are not known at the time of passing the law. Similarly, language that is "broad or open-textured" will also be capable of such changes.<ref>
{{ibid1|DWML}}{{atL|gs0p6|61}} ("The Court noted that not all terms in all statutes must always be confined to their original meanings. Broad statutory categories are often held to include things unknown when the statute was enacted and words in constitutional documents must be capable of growth and development to meet changing circumstances. However, that interpretative approach is most often taken when the statutory language is broad or open-textured. ")
</ref>

There are limitations to "purposive interpretation". Courts cannot choose to do what was not enacted. Bad or outdated policy is properly remedied by Parliament not the courts.<ref>
{{CanLIIRPC|Krayzel Corp. v Equitable Trust Co.|gr6cb|2016 SCC 18 (CanLII)|[2016] 1 SCR 273}}{{perSCC|Brown J}} (6:3){{AtL|gr6cb|32}} ("[Courts] cannot “do by ‘interpretation’ what Parliament chose not to do by enactment”: ... . But the converse is also true: courts may not undo by “interpretation” what Parliament chose to do by enactment. If s. 8 reflects bad or outdated public policy, the remedy lies with 
Parliament, not with the courts.")<br>
{{CanLIIRC|Paragon Capital Corporation Ltd v Starke Dominion Ltd|j7xhs|2020 ABCA 216 (CanLII)}}{{perABCA|Antonio JA}} (dissenting){{AtL|j7xhs|101}}
</ref>

; Legislative Purpose
The objectives of an enactment are not permitted to shift over time and new objects cannot be introduced by courts after-the-fact.<Ref>
{{CanLIIRPC|Canada (Attorney General) v Bedford|g2f56|2013 SCC 72 (CanLII)|[2013] 3 SCR 1101}}{{perSCC|McLachlin CJ}}{{AtL|g2f56|132}}<br>
This is referred to as the "doctrine against shifting objectives" </ref>

Regardless of whether the law is ambiguous, the court must always consider the law's purpose and relevant context.<ref>
{{CanLIIRC|Geophysical Service Incorporated v EnCana Corporation|h3jnp|2017 ABCA 125 (CanLII)}}{{perABCA|Schutz JA}}{{atL|h3jnp|78}}, leave to appeal to SCC refused<br>
{{CanLIIR|Vaillancourt|j26vs|2019 ABCA 317 (CanLII)}}{{atL|j26vs|19}}<br>
</ref>
But this is particularly important when the provision is reasonably capable of multiple interpretations.<ref>
{{ibid1|Vaillancourt}}<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Canada 3000 Inc, Re; Inter-Canadian (1991) Inc (Trustee of)|1nht0|2006 SCC 24 (CanLII)|[2006] 1 SCR 865}}{{atL|1nht0|44}}<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Bell ExpressVu Limited Partnership v Rex|51s6|2002 SCC 42 (CanLII)|[2002] 2 SCR 559}}{{atsL|51s6|29|to 30}}<br>
</ref>

The plain meaning of a word or phrase is not determinative as "[w]ords that appear clear and unambiguous may in fact prove to be ambiguous once placed in their context".<Ref>
{{ibid1|Vaillancourt}}<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Montréal (City) v 2952-1366 Québec Inc|1lwq0|2005 SCC 62 (CanLII)|[2005] 3 SCR 141}}{{AtL|1lwq0|10}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Alex|h4mzd|2017 SCC 37 (CanLII)|[2017] 1 SCR 967}}{{atL|h4mzd|31}}<br>
</ref>

Inferences into purpose of a scheme may be made from "examining the relationship among provisions" to determine the "overall plan" of the Act. This includes considering what each provision contributes towards the goal of the legislature.<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Hoyes|jf8s5|2021 NSCA 33 (CanLII)}}{{perNSCA|Bryson JA}} at para 47{{fix}}
</ref>

The purpose of an Act can be used as an interpretive guide whereby interpretations that promote rather than defeat the purpose should be preferred.<ref>
{{ibid1|Hoyes}} at para 46
</ref>

; Judicial Restraint
Judges are not entitled to "meddle" or refuse to enforce law absent Charter violation. They cannot use back-doors or skew reasons to get outcomes they want or promote policies they prefer.<ref>
{{CanLIIRC|Canada (Attorney General) v Utah|jcbj7|2020 FCA 224 (CanLII)}} per Stratas JA ("Harsh the policy might be. But judges--even the most experienced ones we have--cannot meddle with it or refuse to enforce it unless the legislation enacting it is unconstitutional. Nor can judges go through the back door and skew their reasons to get the outcomes they want or cite non-binding sources promoting policies they prefer: ... . Judges are only unelected lawyers who happen to hold a judicial commission. They have no right to smuggle into the task of statutory interpretation their personal views of what is best and then boost their views to the level of law that binds all. Under our constitutional arrangements, that is alone for our legislators, the people for whom we vote.")
</ref>

{{reflist|2}}

==Fundamental Principle==
The fundamental principle of statutory interpretation is that "the words of a statute be read in their entire context and in their grammatical and ordinary sense harmoniously with the scheme of the Act, the object of the Act, and the intention of the legislature"<ref> 
{{CanLIIRPC|Rizzo & Rizzo Shoes Ltd. (Re)|1fqwt|1998 CanLII 837 (SCC)|[1998] 1 SCR 27}}{{perSCC|Iacobucci J}}{{atL|1fqwt|21}}<br> 
{{CanLIIRPC|Bell Expressive Limited Partnership v Rex|51s6|2002 SCC 42 (CanLII)|[2002] 2 SCR 559}}{{perSCC|Iacobucci J}}{{atL|51s6|26}}<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Application under s. 83.28 of the Criminal Code (Re)|1hblc|2004 SCC 42 (CanLII)|[2004] 2 SCR 248}}{{perSCC|Iacobucci and Arbour JJ}}{{atL|1hblc|34}} ("The modern principle of statutory interpretation requires that the words of the legislation be read “in their entire context and in their grammatical and ordinary sense harmoniously with the scheme of the Act, the object of the Act, and the intention of Parliament”: [citation omitted].  This is the prevailing and preferred approach to statutory interpretation: [citation omitted]  The modern approach recognizes the multi‑faceted nature of statutory interpretation.  Textual considerations must be read in concert with legislative intent and established legal norms. ")
{{CanLIIR|Brode|fqf0r|2012 ONCA 140 (CanLII)}}{{perONCA|Epstien JA}}, (“direct that the words of a statute be read in their entire context and in their grammatical and ordinary sense harmoniously with the scheme of the Act, the object of the Act, and the intention of the legislature.”)<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|British Columbia v Henfrey Samson Belair Ltd|1ft4t|1989 CanLII 43 (SCC)|[1989] 2 SCR 24}}{{perSCC|McLachlin J}}{{atp|31}} ("the provisions of an enactment relevant to a particular case are to be read in the following way:...  The Act as a whole is to be read in its entire context so as to ascertain the intention of Parliament (the law as expressly or impliedly enacted by the words), the object of the Act (the ends sought to be achieved), and the scheme of the Act (the relation between the individual provisions of the Act)....   The words of the individual provisions to be applied to the particular case under consideration are then to be read in their grammatical and ordinary sense in the light of the intention of Parliament embodied in the Act as a whole, the object of the Act and the scheme of the Act, and if they are clear and unambiguous and in harmony with that intention, object and scheme and with the general body of the law, that is the end.")<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Rioux|1xd75|1969 CanLII 83 (CSC)|[1969] SCR 599}}{{perSCC|Hall J}}{{atp|26}} ("First, in criminal matters, the phraseology used by Parliament must be given its ordinary meaning; this is a fundamental rule of interpretation.")<br>
{{CanLIIR|Barton|j0fqj|2019 SCC 33 (CanLII)}}}{{perSCC|Moldaver J}}{{atsL|j0fqj|70| to 71}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Myers|hzd02|2019 SCC 18 (CanLII)|[2019] 2 SCR 105}}{{perSCC|Wagner CJ}}{{atL|hzd02|19}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Jarvis|hxj07|2019 SCC 10 (CanLII)|[2019] 1 SCR 488}}{{perSCC|Wagner CJ}}{{AtL|hxj07|24}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Carson|hr51s|2018 SCC 12 (CanLII)|[2018] 1 SCR 269}}{{perSCC|Karakatsanis J}}{{atL|hr51s|32}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|hw6z0|2018 ABCA 391 (CanLII)|77 Alta LR (6th) 232}}{{perABCA|Rowbotham JA}}{{atL|hw6z0|18}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Paterson|h1tk4|2017 SCC 15 (CanLII)|[2017] 1 SCR 202}}{{perSCC|Brown J}}{{atL|h1tk4|31}}<br>
</ref>

This fundamental rule has been treated as effectively an amalgam of three "classic rules of interpretation":<ref>
{{CanLIIRC|Cape Breton (Regional Municipality) v Nova Scotia (Attorney General)|23h6b|2009 NSCA 44 (CanLII)}}{{perNSCA|Macdonald CJ}}{{atsL|23h6b|36| to 41}}<br>
</ref>
# the "Mischief Rule" that considers legislative intent;
# the "Literal Rule" that considers the "textual meaning"; and
# the "Golden Rule" that considers the "entire context" including established legal norms.

It is understood that legislators choose to adopt “language which accurately conveys the effect of the law without in itself imposing an unnecessary burden of translation and explanation”.<ref>
Howard’s Criminal Law (5th ed. 1990){{atp|11}}</ref>

Whenever possible, every part of a provision should be assigned meaning.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|AA|gkd9q|2015 ONCA 558 (CanLII)|327 CCC (3d) 377}}{{perONCA|Watt JA}}{{atL|gkd9q|67}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Hutchinson|g62cv|2014 SCC 19 (CanLII)|[2014] 1 SCR 346}}{{perSCC|McLachlin CJ and Cromwell J}}{{atL|g62cv|16}}<br>
Ruth Sullivan, Sullivan on the Construction of Statutes, 5th ed. (LexisNexis, 2008){{atp|210}}<br>
</ref>

The "modern" approach to statutory interpretation can be divided into a separate inquiry of "(a) the statute's textual meaning; (b) the legislative intent; and (c) the entire context including the consideration of established heal norms"<ref>
{{supra1|Capre Breton (Regional Municipality) v Nova Scotia (Attorney General)}}{{atsL|23h6b|36| to 38}}<br>
</ref>

"Ordinary meaning" refers "to the reader’s first impression meaning, the understanding that spontaneously comes to mind when words are read in their immediate context".<ref>
{{CanLIIRPC|Pharmascience Inc v Binet|1ptwd|2006 SCC 48 (CanLII)|[2006] 2 SCR 513}}{{perSCC|LeBel J}}{{atL|1ptwd|30}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Wookey|gsssx|2016 ONCA 611 (CanLII)|363 CRR (2d) 177}}{{perONCA|Tulloch JA}}{{atL|gsssx|25}}<br>
</ref>
It is the "natural meaning which appears when the provision is simply read through".<ref>
{{CanLIIRPC|Canadian Pacific Air Lines Ltd. v Canadian Air Line Pilots Assn.|1frzw|1993 CanLII 31 (SCC)|[1993] 3 SCR 724}}{{perSCC|Gonthier J}}{{atp|735}}<br>
{{supra1|Pharmascience Inc v Binet}}{{atL|1ptwd|30}}<br>
{{supra1|Wookey}}{{atL|gsssx|25}}<br>
</ref>

Legislative intent is not to be considered "frozen in time". Its meaning will "respon[d] to the inevitability of changing circumstances".<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|974649 Ontario Inc|51xh|2001 SCC 81 (CanLII)|[2001] 3 SCR 575}}{{perSCC|McLachlin CJ}}{{atL|51xh|38}} (" The intention of Parliament or the legislatures is not frozen for all time at the moment of a statute’s enactment, such that a court interpreting the statute is forever confined to the meanings and circumstances that governed on that day.  Such an approach risks frustrating the very purpose of the legislation by rendering it incapable of responding to the inevitability of changing circumstances.  Instead, we recognize that the law speaks continually once adopted")<br>
</ref>

{{reflist|2}}

==Ambiguity==
Where there is ''no ambiguity'' the fundamental principle of interpretation is the only principle that applies. The other principles only apply where there is "ambiguity".<ref>
{{CanLIIRPC|Bell ExpressVu Limited Partnership v Rex|51s6|2002 SCC 42 (CanLII)|[2002] 2 SCR 559}}{{perSCC|Iacobucci J}}{{atsL|51s6|26| to 28}}<br>
</ref>
That being said, the finding of ambiguity is not a "precondition" to a contextual analysis and restrict analysis to merely a "plain reading" of the text.<Ref>
Martell v Halifax (Regional Municipality), 2015 NSCA 101 (CanLII) at para 32{{fix}}
</ref>

Ambiguity exists where the provision is "reasonably capable of more than one meaning".<ref>
{{supra1|Bell ExpressVu}}{{atL|51s6|29}} ("What, then, in law is an ambiguity?   To answer, an ambiguity must be “real” [citation omitted].  The words of the provision must be “reasonably capable of more than one meaning” [citation omitted].  By necessity, however, one must consider the “entire context” of a provision before one can determine if it is reasonably capable of multiple interpretations.  In this regard, Major J.’s statement in CanadianOxy Chemicals Ltd. v Canada (Attorney General) [citation omitted], is apposite:  “It is only when genuine ambiguity arises between two or more plausible readings, each equally in accordance with the intentions of the statute, that the courts need to resort to external interpretive aids” (emphasis added), to which I would add, “including other principles of interpretation”.")<br>
</ref>
The ambiguity must be "real".<ref>
{{supra1|Bell ExpressVu}}{{atL|51s6|29}}<br>
</ref>
Two or more interpretations must be "each equally in accordance with the intentions of the statute".<ref>
{{supra1|Bell ExpressVu}}{{atL|51s6|29}}<br>
</ref>

Ambiguity does not exist merely where courts or other writers disagree on interpretation.<ref>
{{supra1|Bell ExpressVu}}{{atL|51s6|30}}<br>
</ref>

Ambiguity in the wording of one language may be resolved by considering whether the other language wording provides clarity before considering other principles of interpretation.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Mac|51t0|2002 SCC 24 (CanLII)|[2002] 1 SCR 856}}{{perSCC|Bastarache J}}{{atsL|51t0|26| to 31}}<br>
</ref>

Where the meaning of the English and French versions diverge, the proper interpretation should be the lowest common denominator.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Daoust|1gd51|2004 SCC 6 (CanLII)|[2004] 1 SCR 217}}{{perSCC|Bastarache J}} (7:0){{atL|1gd51|2}}<br>
</ref>

{{reflist|2}}

==Other Principles==
; Error or Omissions
The court has no authority to correct any errors or omissions in legislation where it is a "clearly drafted enactment".<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Daoust|1gd51|2004 SCC 6 (CanLII)|[2004] 1 SCR 217}}{{perSCC|Bastarache J}} (7:0){{atL|1gd51|45}}<br>
</ref>

; Principle of legality
The principle of legality requires that legislation provide a degree of certainty, and should reflect “the overall need to use the criminal law with restraint”<ref>
see D. Stuart, Criminal Law: A Treatise (5th ed. 2007){{atp|86}}</ref>

; No surplusage and presumption against tautology
No provision in an act "should be interpreted so as to render it mere surplusage.”<ref>
{{CanLIIR|Proulx|527b|2000 SCC 61 (CanLII)}}{{perSCC|Lamer CJ}}{{atL|527b|25}}</ref>
Stated differently there is a presumption against legislative bodies using "superfluous or meaningless words".<Ref>
{{CanLIIR|Ali|j47tc|2019 ONCA 1006 (CanLII)}}{{perONCA|Watt JA}}{{atL|j47tc|67}} ("We presume that legislative bodies avoid superfluous or meaningless words. Every word and phrase used in a statute has a meaning and a function. Thus, we eschew interpretations that render any portion of a statute meaningless, pointless, or redundant")<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Winters v Legal Services Society|1fqjr|1999 CanLII 656 (SCC)|[1999] 3 SCR 160}}{{perSCC|Binnie J}}{{atL|1fqjr|48}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Katigbak|fnh5f|2011 SCC 48 (CanLII)|[2011] 3 SCR 326}}{{perSCC|McLachlin C.J. and Charron J}}{{atL|fnh5f|59}}<br>
</ref>

It is a principle that "Parliament does not speak in vain".<ref>
{{CanLIIRPC|Attorney General of Quebec v Carrières Ste-Thérèse Ltée|1ftz7|1985 CanLII 35 (SCC)|[1985] 1 SCR 831}}{{TheCourtSCC}}{{atp|838}}
</ref>

Parliament is presumed to have a purpose for each provision and avoids superfluous and meaningless language.<ref>
{{CanLIIRPC|Medovarski v Canada|1lpk5|2005 SCC 51 (CanLII)|[2005] 2 SCR 539}}{{perSCC|McLachlin CJ}}{{atsL|1lpk5|31| to 38}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Plummer|1q032|2006 CanLII 38165 (ON CA)|214 CCC (3d) 84, [2006] OJ No 4530 (ONCA)}}{{perONCA|Rosenberg JA}}{{atL|1q032|19}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Joncas|1rf5t|2007 NBCA 28 (CanLII)|[2007] NBJ No 152}}{{perNBCA|Drapeau CJ}}{{atL|1rf5t|17}}<br>
</ref>

There is a presumption against legislative drafters being redundant.<ref>
{{CanLIIR|Shand|2f65v|2011 ONCA 5 (CanLII)}}{{perONCA|Rouleau JA}}{{atL|2f65v|107}}<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|National Automobile, Aerospace Transportation and General Workers Union of Canada (CAW - Canada) Local No 27 v London Machinery Inc|1mvmk|2006 CanLII 8711 (ON CA)|, 79 OR (3d) 444 (CA)}}{{perONCA|Cronk JA}}{{atL|1mvmk|7}}<br>
</ref>

; Remedial Purpose
Under s. 12 of the Interpretation Act, "[e]very enactment is deemed remedial, and shall be given such fair, large and liberal construction and interpretation as best ensures the attainment of its objects."<ref>R.S., c. I-23, s. 11.</ref>
This requires that the court examine what the problem the act is attempting to solve and interpret the meaning in that light.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Gladue|1fqp2|1999 CanLII 679 (SCC)|[1999] 1 SCR 688}}{{perSCC|Cory and Iacobucci JJ}}{{AtsL|1fqp2|31| to 34}}<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Canada 3000 Inc, Re; Inter‑Canadian (1991) Inc (Trustee of)|1nht0|2006 SCC 24 (CanLII)|[2006] 1 SCR 865}}{{perSCC|Binnie J}}{{atL|1nht0|36}} ("the notion that a statute is to be interpreted in light of the problem it was intended to address is as old at least as the 16th century”)
</ref>

; Constitutional Interpretation and Charter values
Where multiple interpretations exist the court should only consider those interpretations that are constitutional.<ref>
{{CanLIIRPC|Slaight Communications v Davidson|1ft6r|1989 CanLII 92 (SCC)|[1989] 1 SCR 1038}}{{perSCC|Dickson CJ}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Canadian Pacific Ltd.|1frjl|1995 CanLII 112 (SCC)|[1995] 2 SCR 1031}}{{perSCC|Gonthier J}}{{atL|1frjl|12}}<br>
{{CanLIIR|Nickel City Transport (Sudbury) Ltd., Nickel City Transport (Sudbury) Ltd.|g1j5h|1993 CanLII 8483 (ON CA)|82 CCC (3d) 541}}{{Plurality}}<br> 
{{CanLIIRP|Rube|1fs8f|1992 CanLII 34 (SCC)|[1992] 3 SCR 159}}{{perSCC|Lamer CJ}}
</ref>

A provision should be interpreted to conform with "Charter values".<ref>
{{supra1|Bell ExpressVu}}<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Hills v Canada (Attorney General)|1ftfr|1988 CanLII 67 (SCC)|[1988] 1 SCR 513}}{{perSCC|L'Heureux‑Dubé J}}{{atL|1ftfr|93}} ("Appellant ... urged that preference be given to Charter values in the interpretation of a statute, ... I agree that the values embodied in the Charter must be given preference over an interpretation which would run contrary to them... ")<br> 
{{CanLIIR|Nova Scotia Pharmaceutical Society|1fs9g|1992 CanLII 72 (SCC)|[1992] 2 SCR 606}}{{perSCC|Gonthier J}} ("It must be remembered that if there are two possible interpretations of a statutory provision, one of which embodies the Charter values and the other does not, that which embodies the Charter values should be adopted.")<br>
</ref>

This principle only applies where there is ambiguity.<ref>
{{supra1|Bell ExpressVu}}<br>
</ref>

; International Law
It is presumed that all laws of Canada are to accord with international law.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Hape|1rq5n|2007 SCC 26 (CanLII)|[2007] 2 SCR 292}}{{perSCC|LeBel J}} {{atL|1rq5n|53}}
</ref>
Parliament is free to make laws that conflict, but it should do so "clearly and expressly".<ref>
{{CanLIIR|Chowdhury|g6npq|2014 ONSC 2635 (CanLII)}}{{perONSC|Nordheimer J}} {{atL|g6npq|20}}<br>
</ref>

; Presumption of Consistent or Uniform Expression (same words, same meaning)
Unless it appears otherwise, the same words used by the legislature have the same meaning within a statute, and different words have different meanings.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|AA|gkd9q|2015 ONCA 558 (CanLII)|327 CCC (3d) 377}}{{perONCA|Watt JA}} (3:0){{atL|gkd9q|68}}<br>
{{CanLIIR|Ali|j47tc|2019 ONCA 1006 (CanLII)}}{{perONCA|Watt JA}}{{atL|j47tc|68}} ("We also presume the legislative body uses language in a careful and consistent manner. Thus, within a statute, the same words and phrases have the same meaning and different words and phrases have different meanings. Unless the context clearly indicates otherwise, words and phrases should be assigned the same meaning wherever they appear in a statute")<br>
Ruth Sullivan, Sullivan on the Construction of Statutes, 5th ed. (LexisNexis, 2008), at 214 to 215<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Zeolkowski|1ft57|1989 CanLII 72 (SCC)|[1989] 1 SCR 1378}}{{perSCC|Sopinka J}} (5:0){{atp|1387}}<br>
{{CanLIIR|Bansal|h03fh|2017 BCCA 93 (CanLII)}}{{perBCCA|Frankel JA}} (3:0){{atL|h03fh|41}} (the principles "presumes that, unless the contrary appears, the same words will have the same meaning in a statute, particularly when they are used in close proximity")<br>
</ref>

"[A]bsent express language to the contrary, the same words in two subsections of the same provision should be treated alike...  Giving the same words the same meaning throughout a statute is a basic principle of statutory interpretation".<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Charette|234f1|2009 ONCA 310 (CanLII)|243 CCC (3d) 480}}{{perONCA|Moldaver JA}} (3:0){{atL|234f1|38}} citing
{{supra1|Zeolkowski}}{{atp|1387}}</ref>

The principle of "uniformity of expression" states that a word or phrase should have one and only one meaning across the statute and enabled regulation. The opposite is also true, the use of different wording implies a different meaning.<ref>
see {{CanLIIRPC|Maurice v Priel|1pfnq|1987 CanLII 207 (SK CA)|46 DLR (4th) 416}}{{perSKCA|Bayda CJ}}{{Atps|20-21}}<br>
</ref>
The principles of uniformity of expression are not infallible.<ref>
{{CanLIIR|Trang|5mgz|2001 ABQB 106 (CanLII)}}{{perABQB|Binder J}}{{atL|5mgz|21}}<br>
</ref>

; Amending the common law
There is a presumption against interpreting statutes as changing the common law, except where they "clearly and unambiguously" intend to do so.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Goleski|g5bwd|2014 BCCA 80 (CanLII)|307 CCC (3d) 1}}{{perBCCA|Frankel JA}} (3:0){{atL|g5bwd|77}}<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Slaight Communications Inc v Davidson|1ft6r|1989 CanLII 92 (SCC)|[1989] 1 SCR 1038}}{{perSCC|Dickson CJ}}{{atp|1077}}<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Parry Sound (District) Social Services Administration Board v O.P.S.E.U., Local 324|51pb|2003 SCC 42 (CanLII)|[2003] 2 SCR 157}}{{perSCC|Iacobucci J}}{{atL|51pb|39}}<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Heritage Capital Corp. v Equitable Trust Co|gr6cd|2016 SCC 19 (CanLII)|[2016] 1 SCR 306}}{{perSCC|Gascon and Côté JJ}} (9:0){{atsL|gr6cd|29| to 30}}<br>
</ref>

; Avoiding absurdities
Where the language of a statue has multiple meanings, it must be interpreted to exclude absurd results.
<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Canadian Pacific Ltd.|1frjl|1995 CanLII 112 (SCC)|[1995] 2 SCR 1031}}{{perSCC|Gonthier J}}{{atL|1frjl|65}}<br>
{{CanLIIR|Hinchey|1fr57|1996 CanLII 157 (SCC)|[1996] 3 SCR 1128}}{{perSCC|L’Heureux-Dubé J}}<br>
{{supra1|Rizzo}}{{atL|1fqwt|27}}<br>
{{supra1|Ali}}{{atL|j47tc|71}} ("An interpretation that leads to an absurdity may be rejected in favour of a plausible alternative that avoids the absurdity.")<br>
{{CanLIIRP|McIntosh|1frn3|1995 CanLII 124 (SCC)|[1995] 1 SCR 686}}{{perSCC|Lamer CJ}}{{atp|722}} (SCR)<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Morgentaler v The Queen|1mzhx|1975 CanLII 8 (SCC)|[1976] 1 SCR 616}}{{perSCC|Pigeon J}}{{atp|676}}<br>
</ref>

; General wording
General wording of a statute is to provide the court with the responsibility to interpret in a prescriptive manner.<ref>
{{CanLIIR|Beauchamp|24mpl|2009 CanLII 37720 (ONSC)}}{{perONSC|Smith J}}{{atsL|24mpl|40| to 41}}</ref>

; Associated words rule
Terms associated with each other in the form of an enumeration linked by "and" or "or" are to "serve an analogous grammatical and logical function within a provision". The terms are to "draw colour" from each other through their commonality and differences. This is to  be used to resolve ambiguity or limit the scope of the terms.<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Ali|j47tc|2019 ONCA 1006 (CanLII)}}{{perONCA|Watt JA}}{{atL|j47tc|69}} ("The associated words rule may be invoked when two or more terms, linked by “and” or “or”, serve an analogous grammatical and logical function within a provision. The terms draw their colour from each other. We look to a common feature among the terms and rely on that common feature to resolve ambiguity or limit the scope of the terms")<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Goulis|g1j1j|1981 CanLII 1642 (ON CA)|60 CCC (2d) 348 (Ont. C.A.)}}{{perONCA-H|Martin JA}}{{atps|352-353}}<br>
See also, {{CanLIIRPC|Ontario v Canadian Pacific Ltd|1frjl|1995 CanLII 112 (SCC)|[1995] 2 SCR 1031}}{{perSCC|Gonthier J}}{{atL|1frjl|64}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Daoust|1gd51|2004 SCC 6 (CanLII)|[2004] 1 SCR 217}}{{perSCC|Bastarache J}}{{atsL|1gd51|49| to 51}}<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Opitz v Wrzesnewskvj|ftdk|2012 SCC 55 (CanLII)|[2012] 3 SCR 76}}{{perSCC|Rothstein and Moldaver JJ}}{{AtsL|ftdkd|40| to 43}}<br>
</ref>

; Last Antecedents
When legislation lists a series of clauses, a "comma before a qualifying word ordinarily indicates that they are meant to apply to all antecedents while the absence of a comma indicates that they are meant to apply to the last antecedent alone."<ref>
{{CanLIIR|CL|23rbs|2005 NSFC 21 (CanLII)}}{{perNSSC|Comeau J}}{{atL|23rbs|7}} citing Dreidger, "Construction of Statutes (3rd Ed.){{atp|277}}<br>
</ref>

Relative words "must ordinarily be referred to the last antecedent" to give the words full meaning.<ref>
{{CanLIIRPC|Re Hinton Avenue, Ottawa|gw7fl|1920 CanLII 443 (ON CA)|54 DLR 115}}{{perONCA|Sutherland JA}}<br>
</ref>
This rule should yield where the result "makes nonsense".<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Frank|1z73l|1977 CanLII 152 (SCC)|[1978] 1 SCR 95}}{{perSCC|Dickson J}} (9:0)<br>
</ref>

; Deference to Parliament
Deference must be given to the manner chosen to achieve its objectives.<ref>
{{ibid1|Beauchamp}}{{atsL|24mpl|42| to 44}}
</ref>

; Legislative History
The history of legislation can be an important part of "the context" for statutory interpretation.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|ADH|fxgf4|2013 SCC 28 (CanLII)|[2013] 2 SCR 269}}{{perSCC|Cromwell J}}{{atL|fxgf4|30}}<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Canada (Canadian Human Rights Commission) v Canada (Attorney General)|fnl47|2011 SCC 53 (CanLII)|[2011] 3 SCR 471}}{{perSCC|LeBel and Cromwell JJ}}{{atL|fnl47|43}}<br>
</ref>
The history can sometimes provide insight into how to interpret the provision.<ref>
{{ibid1|Goleski}}{{atL|g5bwd|31}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Ulybel Enterprises Ltd.|51z0|2001 SCC 56 (CanLII)|[2001] 2 SCR 867}}{{perSCC|Iacobucci J}} (7:0){{atL|51z0|33}}<br> 
{{CanLIIRPC|Chieu v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)|51wk|2002 SCC 3 (CanLII)|[2002] 1 SCR 84}}{{perSCC|Iacobucci J}}{{atL|51wk|34}}<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Montréal (City) v 2952-1366 Québec Inc|1lwq0|2005 SCC 62 (CanLII)|[2005] 3 SCR 141}}{{perSCC|McLachlin CJ and Deschamps J}}{{atL|1lwq0|17}}<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|McDiarmid Lumber Ltd. v God’s Lake First Nation|1q553|2006 SCC 58 (CanLII)|[2006] 2 SCR 846}}{{perSCC|McLachlin CJ}}{{atL|1q553|46}}<br>
</ref>

House of Commons debates that indicate the object of the bill can regularly be relied upon as evidence for the legislative purpose.<ReF>
see e.g. {{CanLIIRPC|Canadian National Railway Co v Canada (A.G.)|g6z0w|2014 SCC 40 (CanLII)|[2014] 2 SCR 135}}{{perSCC|Rothstein J}} (7:0){{atL|g6z0w|47}}<br>
</ref>

; Legislative Headers and Marginal Notes
Marginal notes are of limited value.<ref>
Interpretation Act, s. 14<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Imperial Oil Ltd. v Canada; Inco Ltd. v Canada|1psfw|2006 SCC 46 (CanLII)|[2006] 2 SCR 447}}{{perSCC|LeBel J}} (4:3){{atL|1psfw|57}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Wigglesworth|1ftkp|1987 CanLII 41 (SCC)|[1987] 2 SCR 541}}{{perSCC|Wilson J}}{{atsL|1ftkp|18| to 19}}<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Skapinker v Law Society of Upper Canada|1czjg|1984 CanLII 3 (SCC)|[1984] 1 SCR 357}}{{perSCC|Estey J}}{{atL|1czjg|25}} - Charter interpretation, (“These headings in Part I appear to be integral to the Charter provisions and hence of more significance than the marginal notes and chapter headings sometimes appearing in the statutes.”)
</ref>
However, they can be "relevant to interpreting the provisions arranged under it".<ref>
{{CanLIIRPC|Ambrosi v British Columbia (Attorney General)|g6drj|2014 BCCA 123 (CanLII)|311 CCC (3d) 264}}{{perBCCA|Bennett JA}} (3:0){{atL|g6drj|54}}<br>
{{supra1|Law Society of Upper Canada v Skapinker}}<br>
</ref>

{{reflist|2}}

==Interpreting the Criminal Code==
* [[Statutory Interpretation of the Criminal Code]]

==Charter Interpretation==
* [[Statutory Interpretation of the Charter]]

== Legislative Amendments ==
* [[Interpreting Legislative Amendments]]

== ''Stare Decisis'' == 
* [[Stare Decisis]]

==Special Issues of Interpretation==
===Interpreting Court Orders===
Interpreting an order is a "question of law" and no deference is owed on review. It is an objective assessment on a standard of correctness.<ref>
{{CanLIIRC|Royal Bank of Canada v Robertson|gscmm|2016 NSSC 176 (CanLII)}}{{perNSSC|Moir J}}{{atL|gscmm|11}}<br>
</ref>

There is an exception where a judge's interpretation of his own orders is "entitled to considerable deference".<ref>
{{CanLIIRC|Boily v Carleton Condo. Corp|g8gcz|2014 ONCA 574 (CanLII)}}{{perONCA|Epstein JA}} (2:1){{atL|g8gcz|71}}<br>
</ref>

Where record of the decision is available, it will be necessary to conform the order to the decision.<ref>
{{supra1|Robertson}}{{atL|gscmm|13}}<br>
</ref>

In interpreting an order "a Court will use accepted principles of statutory and contractual interpretation to ascertain the intent of the ordering judge".<ref>
{{CanLIIRC|Canadian National Railway v Holmes|gjlbf|2015 ONSC 3038 (CanLII)}}{{perONSC|McEwan J}}{{atL|gjlbf|18}}<br>
{{supra1|Robertson}}{{atL|gscmm|14}}<br>
</ref>Those principles of statutory and contractual interpretation are "analogous" to the principles to be applied to looking at the "intent of the ordering judge"<ref>
{{supra1|Robertson}}{{atL|gscmm|15}}<br>
{{CanLIIRC|L’Homme v Pliskevicius Estate|fnfmq|2011 ONSC 6102 (CanLII)}}{{perONSC|Crane J}}{{atL|fnfmq|22}}<br>
</ref>

The "contextual approach to interpreting statutes ...with necessary modification, apply to the interpretation of orders."<ref>
{{supra1|Robertson}}{{atL|gscmm|19}}<br>
</ref>

{{Reflist|2}}

===Interpreting Foreign Law===
It is a well established that relying upon foreign law in a judicial proceedings will normally require expert evidence.<ref>
{{CanLIIRPC|Xiao v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)|22pdc|2009 FC 195 (CanLII)|[2009] 4 FCR 510, 341 FTR 217}} ''per'' de Montigny J{{atL|22pdc|24}}<Br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Allen v Hay|21v71|1922 CanLII 25 (SCC)|64 SCR 76}}{{perSCC|Duff J}} at pp. 80–81<br>
</ref>
The existence of a foreign law is a question of fact.<Ref>
{{ibid1|Xiao}} at paras 24, 25, 28 and 29
</ref>

While judges are deemed to know the law within their jurisdiction, they are not competent to know the law of a foreign country.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Wagner|htww4|1931 CanLII 479 (MB CA)|56 CCC 213, 39 Man R 532}}{{perMBCA-H|Robson JA}} at p 535 (Man R)
</ref>

{{reflist|2}}

==See Also==
* [http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/laws/stat/rsc-1985-c-i-21/latest/rsc-1985-c-i-21.html Interpretation Act, RSC 1985, c I-21]