View source for Aboriginal Sentencing Principles and Factors

{{Currency2|January|2023}}
{{LevelOne}}
{{HeaderPrinciples}}
==General Principles==
{{seealso|Racial Identity in Sentencing}}
Section 718.2(e) requires sentencing judges to take into account an offender's aboriginal status. It states that "[a] court that imposes a sentence shall also take into consideration...all available sanctions, other than imprisonment, that are reasonable in the circumstances and consistent with the harm done to victims or to the community should be considered for all offenders, with particular attention to the circumstances of Aboriginal offenders."<ref>
see s. [{{CCCSec|718.2}} 718.2(e)]<br>
First recognized for aboriginal offenders in {{CanLIIRP|Gladue|1fqp2|1999 CanLII 679 (SCC)|[1999] 1 SCR 688}}{{perSCC|Cory and Iacobucci JJ}}</ref> 

This provision imposes a different approach to sentencing for aboriginal offenders.<ref>
{{ibid1|Gladue}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Ipeelee|fqq00|2012 SCC 13 (CanLII)|[2012] 1 SCR 433}}{{perSCC|LeBel J}}{{atsL|fqq00|73| to 74}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Kakekagamick|1p52k|2006 CanLII 28549 (ON CA)|[2006] OJ No 3346}}{{perONCA|LaForme JA}} <br>
</ref>
It "suggests that there is something different about aboriginal offenders which may specifically make imprisonment a less appropriate or less useful sanction."<ref>
{{supra1|Gladue}}{{atL|1fqp2|37}}
</ref>

The section is in part an attempt at providing a form of affirmative action under s. 15(2) of the Charter, but not to the extent of providing an automatic deduction of sentence.<ref>
{{supra1|Gladue}}{{atL|1fqp2|88}}</ref>

Courts are required to take judicial notice of that Aboriginals have a long-standing disadvantage in Canadian society.<ref>
{{supra1|Ipeelee}}</ref>

It has been observed that the over-representation of aboriginal offenders in prison is due to (a) substance abuse, (b) lack of education, (c) lack of employment and (d) marginalization.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Borde|1c062|2003 CanLII 4187 (ON CA)|172 CCC (3d) 225}}{{perONCA|Rosenberg JA}}<Br>
{{CanLIIR|Anderson|jhjwd|2021 NSCA 62 (CanLII)}}{{perNSCA|Derrick JA}}
</ref>

; Imposition of Incarceration
The court must consider whether imprisonment to denounce or deter "would be meaningful to the community of which the offender is a member."<ref>
{{supra1|Gladue}}{{atL|1fqp2|69}}</ref>

Sentencing for aboriginal offenders will tend to take a more restorative approach to sentencing.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Wells|527n|2000 SCC 10 (CanLII)|[2000] 1 SCR 207}}{{perSCC|Iacobucci J}}
</ref>
Denunciation and deterrence can still play a part in sentencing as it is important to the community associated with the offender. <ref>
{{ibid1|Wells}}
</ref>

; Sentence Reductions
The fact that a person is aboriginal does not automatically warrant a reduction in sentence. The aboriginal factor must be considered among other factors as well and its impact will vary from case-to-case.<ref>
{{supra1|Gladue}}{{atL|1fqp2|88}}</ref>

The aboriginal sentencing factors (or "Gladue" factors) will play a role in all offences by aboriginal offenders, no matter how serious.<ref>
{{supra1|Ipeelee}}</ref> 
However, the factors will play less of a role for the most serious offences where the emphasis must be on the protection of the public, denunciation and deterrence.<ref>
{{supra1|Gladue}}{{atL|1fqp2|78}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Harry|g2jt6|2013 MBCA 108 (CanLII)|303 Man. R. (2d) 39}}{{perMBCA|Hamilton JA}}<br>
</ref>

Where imprisonment is necessary, the length may be less due to the aboriginal heritage factors, but where the offence is "more violence and serious" it is "more likely" that the terms of imprisonment will be close to or the same length as a non-aboriginal offender. <ref>
{{supra1|Gladue}}{{atL|1fqp2|79}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Carrière|1db3w|2002 CanLII 41803 (ON CA)|164 CCC (3d) 569}}{{TheCourtONCA}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Jacko|2b6nq|2010 ONCA 452 (CanLII)|256 CCC (3d) 113}}{{perONCA-H|Watt JA}}
</ref>

; Non-Aboriginal Disadvantaged Groups
The principles under s. 718.2(e) do not apply analogously to other historically disadvantaged groups including African-Canadians.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Borde|1c062|2003 CanLII 4187 (ON CA)|172 CCC (3d) 225}}{{perONCA|Rosenberg JA}}
</ref> 
But issues of race, gender, and poverty can still be considered as mitigating factors.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Hamilton|1hmc9|2004 CanLII 5549 (ON CA)|186 CCC (3d) 129}}{{perONCA-H|Doherty JA}} overturning [http://canlii.ca/t/1bxtm 2003 CanLII 2862] (ONSC){{perONSC|Hill J}}
</ref>

; Gladue Report
A Gladue Report is a form of pre-sentence report that addresses the necessary Gladue factors the sentencing judge must consider. They are not expert reports.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Lawson|fv92v|2012 BCCA 508 (CanLII)|294 CCC (3d) 369}}{{perBCCA|MacKenzie JA}}{{atsL|fv92v|22| 26 to 28, 33}}
</ref>

A Gladue report must have "balance and objectivity."<ref>
{{ibid1|Lawson}}
</reF>
It still may make suggestions about recommended programs or sentences, however, should avoid making "strong" recommendations for specific sentences.<ref>
{{supra1|Lawson}}{{atL|fv92v|28}}("offer suggestions or proposals about potential restorative or rehabilitative programs or sentences, and particularly those tailored to Aboriginal offenders, they should not strongly recommend specific sentences.")
</ref>

; Limitations on Application of the Principles
The principles are not to be used to provide "automatic" reduction in sentencing and does not mandate a different result due to identity.<ref>
{{supra1|Gladue}}{{AtL|1fqp2|88}} ("s. 718.2(e) should not be taken as requiring an automatic reduction of a sentence, or a remission of a warranted period of incarceration, simply because the offender is aboriginal")<br>
{{supra1|Wells}}{{atL|527n|44}} ("Let me emphasize that s. 718.2(e) requires a different methodology for assessing a fit sentence for an aboriginal offender; it does not mandate, necessarily,  a different result. .. s. 718.2(e) does not mean that aboriginal offenders must always be sentenced in a manner which gives greatest weight to the principles of restorative justice and less weight to goals such as deterrence, denunciation, and separation")
</ref>

Particularly violent and serious offences will result in imprisonment for aboriginal offenders as much as everyone else.<Ref>
{{supra1|Wells}}{{atL|527n|44}} ("As a result, it will generally be the case, as a practical matter, that particularly violent and serious offences will result in imprisonment for aboriginal offenders as often as for non-aboriginal offenders")<Br>
{{supra1|Gladue}}{{atL|1fqp2|33}}
</ref>

The principles are not meant to "hijack" the process to pursue other goals.<ref>
{{supra1|Ipeelee}}{{atL|fqq00|68}}
</ref>
The sentencing process should not be considered the "primary" means of addressing aboriginal overrepresentation.<REf>
{{supra1|Ipeelee}}{{AtL|fqq00|69}}
</ref>
It has been said that the principles are not intended as a means to redress complex social problems or past wrongs.<Ref>
{{CanLIIR|King|js264|2022 ONCA 665 (CanLII)}}{{perONCA|Fairburn ACJ and George JA}}{{atL|js264|175}} ("The application of the Gladue principles in this context is not intended as a vehicle to redress broad social problems or to remedy past disadvantage")
</ref>

{{Reflist|2}}

==Aboriginal Sentencing Factors ("Gladue" Factors)==
{{seealso|Pre-Sentence Reports}}

In sentencing aboriginal offenders, the sentencing judge must:<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Laboucane|gs1d5|2016 ABCA 176 (CanLII)|337 CCC (3d) 445}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{atL|gs1d5|5}}<br>
</ref>
# consider "Gladue factors" unless the offender "expressly waives the right" to have them considered;<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Ipeelee|fqq00|2012 SCC 13 (CanLII)|[2012] 1 SCR 433}}{{perSCC|LeBel J}}{{atL|fqq00|60}}
</ref> and
# provide "transparent and understandable reasons" as to how, if at all, the "identified Gladue factors impacted" the sentence.

This duty requires the judge to "address explicitly an aboriginal offender's circumstances, and the systemic and background factors that contributed to those circumstances."<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Napesis|gldmz|2015 ABCA 308 (CanLII)|607 AR 395}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{atL|gldmz|8}}<br>
</ref>

; Purpose of s. 718.2(e)
The purpose of s. 718.2(e) is the "identification of relevant factors" of the offender's aboriginal heritage that may have played a part in bringing the particular offender."<ref>
{{supra1|Laboucane}}{{atL|gs1d5|67}}<br>
</ref>

The factors are not to work as "an excuse or justification for the criminal conduct."  They "provide the necessary context to enable a judge to determine an appropriate sentence."<ref>
{{supra1|Laboucane}}{{atL|gs1d5|71}}<br>
{{supra1|Ipeelee}}{{atL|fqq00|83}}<br>
</ref>

; When Factors Apply
The mere assertion of aboriginal heritage is not sufficient to engage s. 718.2(e). As otherwise, it would create a "race-based discount on sentence."<ref>
{{supra1|Ipeelee}}{{atL|fqq00|75}}
</ref>
It is also insufficient to merely point to the "systemic and background factors affecting Aboriginal people in Canadian society."<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|L(FH)|hq2qs|2018 ONCA 83 (CanLII)|360 CCC (3d) 189}}{{perONCA|Epstein  JA}}{{atL|hq2qs|39}}
</ref>

The factors apply to all offences, no matter how serious they may be.<ref>
{{supra1|Ipeelee}}{{atL|fqq00|84}}<br>
{{supra1|Gladue}}{{atL|1fqp2|79}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Wells|527n|2000 SCC 10 (CanLII)|[2000] 1 SCR 207}}{{perSCC|Iacobucci J}}{{atsL|527n|42| to 44}}<br>
{{supra1|Laboucane}}{{atL|gs1d5|63}}<br>
</ref>

Gladue factors are only "one of a group of factors that can affect the level of moral blameworthiness."<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Assiniboine|gr89z|2016 SKQB 149 (CanLII)|8 WWR 512}}{{perSKQB|Danyliuk J}}{{atL|gr89z|74}}<br>
</ref>

Gladue does not "create an entire new system of sentencing" for aboriginal offenders.<ref>
{{ibid1|Assiniboine}}{{atL|gr89z|78}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Chanalquay|gmndg|2015 SKCA 141 (CanLII)|26 CR (7th) 276}}{{perSKCA|Richards CJ}}{{atL|gmndg|42}}<br>
</ref>

There is no "easily ascertained or articulated" test to determine when background should influence the ultimate sentence.<Ref>
{{supra1|L(FH)}}{{atL|hq2qs|38}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Whitehead|gwqcg|2016 SKCA 165 (CanLII)|344 CCC (3d) 1}}{{perSKCA|Caldwell JA}}{{atL|gwqcg|60}}<br>
</ref>

Failure to apply the Gladue principles on a case involving an Aboriginal offender violates the court's statutory obligations.<ref>
("The sentencing judge has a statutory duty, imposed by s. 718.2(e) of the Criminal Code, to consider the unique circumstances of Aboriginal offenders. Failure to apply Gladue in any case involving an Aboriginal offender runs afoul of this statutory obligation")<br>
{{supra1|Ipeelee}} at para 87
{{CanLIIR|Kehoe|jtpg7|2023 BCCA 2 (CanLII)}}{{perBCCA|Marchard JA}}{{atL|jtpg7|44}} 
</ref> 

; Linking Factors to Offence
There is no need of proving a "causal connection" between the offence and the accused's aboriginal background.<ref>
{{supra1|L(FH)}}{{atL|hq2qs|38}} ("The law, reviewed above, is clear. In order to be relevant to sentencing, an offender’s Aboriginal background need not be causally connected to the offence(s) for which a sentence is being imposed.")<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Collins|fkdrs|2011 ONCA 182 (CanLII)|[2011] OJ No 978}}{{perONCA|Rosenberg JA}}{{atL|fkdrs|32}} ("There is nothing in the governing authorities that places the burden of persuasion on an Aboriginal accused to establish a causal link between the systemic and background factors and commission of the offence.")<br>
{{supra1|Ipeelee}}{{atL|fqq00|83}}<br>
{{supra1|Laboucane}}{{atL|gs1d5|63}}<br>
</ref>
There is no need to "draw a straight line" between their roots and the offence.<Ref>
{{supra1|L(FH)}}{{atL|hq2qs|38}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Monckton|h42q4|2017 ONCA 450 (CanLII)|349 CCC (3d) 90}}{{perONCA|Trotter JA}}{{atL|h42q4|115}}<br>
</ref>

The only linkage needed is by considering which factors "may have played a part in bringing the particular offender before the courts."<ref>
{{supra1|Gladue}}{{atL|1fqp2|69}}<br>
{{supra1|Laboucane}}{{atL|gs1d5|63}}<br>
</ref>

; Accused's Connection to Aboriginal Heritage
It is an error of law to rely on "limited" role of Gladue principles on account of a "disconnection" with his aboriginal heritage.<Ref>
{{supra1|Kehoe}}{{atL|jtpg7|5}}<br>
</ref> 

; Burden
The offender does not have any burden of persuasion.<ref>
{{supra1|Laboucane}}{{atL|gs1d5|63}}
</ref>
The judge must consider all factors "which may have played a part in bringing the particular offender before the courts."<ref>
{{supra1|Laboucane}}{{atL|gs1d5|63}}<br>
{{supra1|Gladue}}{{atL|1fqp2|69}}<br>
</ref>

; Effect of Factors
Where Gladue factors are identified they "will not dictate an automatic reduction in the sentence."<ref>
{{supra1|Laboucane}}{{atsL|gs1d5|2|}}, and {{atsL-np|gs1d5|63|}}<br>
{{supra1|Ipeelee}}{{atL|fqq00|74}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Holloway|g623h|2014 ABCA 87 (CanLII)|308 CCC (3d) 145}}{{perABCA|Berger JA}}{{atL|g623h|42}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Popowich|fx5km|2013 ABCA 149 (CanLII)|106 WCB (2d) 652}}{{perABCA|Berger JA}}{{atL|fx5km|24}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Guimond|gn95m|2016 MBCA 18 (CanLII)|26 CR (7th) 295}}{{perMBCA|Mainella JA}}{{atsL|gn95m|6| to 7}} <br>
{{CanLIIRP|Johnny|gnb50|2016 BCCA 61 (CanLII)|26 CR (7th) 304}}{{perBCCA|Newbury JA}}{{atL|gnb50|21}} (“The fact that the sentencing judge was required to consider s 718.2(e) does not mean she was to ignore the effects of the offender’s conduct on his community ... or on the various individuals who have suffered and continue to suffer as a result of” the offence)<br>
cf. {{CanLIIRP|Kreko|grq16|2016 ONCA 367 (CanLII)|131 OR (3d) 685}}{{perONCA|Pardu JA}}
</ref>
The factors "do not operate as an excuse or justification for the criminal conduct. Rather, they provide the necessary context to enable a judge to determine an appropriate sentence."<ref>
{{supra1|Ipeelee}}{{atL|fqq00|83}}<br>
{{supra1|Laboucane}}{{atL|gs1d5|63}}<br>
</ref>

The factors will only have an impact on penalty where "the unique circumstances of the particular offender bear on his or her culpability for the offence or indicate which sentencing objectives can and should be actualized."<ref>
{{supra1|Ipeelee}}{{atL|fqq00|83}}<br>
{{supra1|Laboucane}}{{atL|gs1d5|63}}<br>
</ref>

; Considerations
The aboriginal heritage factors must be considered in light of how they may have played a part in bringing the accused before the Court.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Gladue|1fqp2|1999 CanLII 679 (SCC)|[1999] 1 SCR 688}}{{perSCC|Cory and Iacobucci JJ}}{{atL|1fqp2|69}}</ref>
There is no discretion on whether to consider these factors. They must be considered in every sentencing hearing relating to an aboriginal offender.<ref>
{{supra1|Laboucane}}{{atL|gs1d5|63}}<br>
</ref>
Failure to undertake the duty to apply Gladue principles to an aboriginal offender is a reversible error.<ref>
{{supra1|Ipeelee}}{{atL|fqq00|87}}<br>
{{supra1|Laboucane}}{{atL|gs1d5|63}}<br>
</ref>

The Court must consider:<ref>
{{supra1|Ipeelee}}{{atsL|fqq00|73| to 74}}<br>
{{supra1|Kakekagamick}}<br>
</ref>
#the unique systemic or background factors which may have played a part in bringing the particular aboriginal offender before the Courts (such as systemic disadvantages, discrimination and other factors) and
#the effectiveness of the sentencing by looking at the types of sentencing procedures and sanctions which may be appropriate in the circumstances of the offender because of his or her particular aboriginal heritage or connection.

The systemic factors can be evinced in the following statistics:<ref>
{{supra1|Ipeelee}}{{atsL|fqq00|57|, 60}}<br>
</ref>
*In 1988, aboriginal persons were only 2 percent of the national population but 10 percent of federal inmates
*In some provinces, 32 percent of the federal inmates were aboriginal persons
*In one province, 60 percent of the provincial inmates were aboriginal persons

Despite the disproportionate numbers of imprisoned aboriginals, courts are ''not'' to artificially reduce the aboriginal prison population for its own sake.<ref>
{{supra1|Ipeelee}}{{atL|fqq00|75}}<br>
</ref>

The aboriginal heritage factors include:<ref>
{{supra1|Gladue}}<br>
</ref>
* family circumstances
* support network
* residential schools
* unemployment
* lack of educational opportunities
* dislocation from aboriginal communities, loneliness and community fragmentation
* family involvement in a criminal environment
* loss of identity, culture and ancestral knowledge
* substance abuse
* poverty
* racism 
* abuse
* witness to violence

Courts must take judicial notice of the "history of colonialism, displacement and residential schools" and how it has translated to lower education and income, and higher rates of unemployment, suicide and incarceration.<ref>
{{supra1|Ipeelee}}{{atL|fqq00|60}}</ref>

Factors such as poverty, substance abuse, lack of education, loneliness, community fragmentation, and the lack of employment opportunities" create an unbalanced ratio of imprisonment of aboriginal offenders.<ref>
{{supra1|Gladue}}{{atsL|1fqp2|65|, 67}}</ref>

{{Reflist|2}}

==See Also==
* [[Sentencing Circles]]