View source for Informer Privilege

[[Fr:Privilège_d%27informateur]]
{{Currency2|January|2021}}
{{LevelZero}}{{HeaderPrivilege}}

==General Principles==
Informer privilege has its origins in the common law as a rule that prohibits the disclosure of an informer's identity in public or in court.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Durham Regional Crime Stoppers Inc|h68g0|2017 SCC 45 (CanLII)|[2017] 2 SCR 157}}{{perSCC-H|Moldaver J}}{{atL|h68g0|11}} ("Informer privilege is a common law rule that prohibits the disclosure of an informer’s identity in public or in court.")
</ref>

Informer privilege is a "class privilege" and so "presumptively cloaks in confidentiality matters properly within its scope without regard to the particulars of the situation."<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|National Post|29l77|2010 SCC 16 (CanLII)|[2010] 1 SCR 477}}{{perSCC-H|Binnie J}}{{atL|29l77|42}}<br>
</ref> 
It is an "ancient and hallowed protection which plays a vital role in law enforcement."<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Leipert|1fr41|1997 CanLII 367 (SCC)|[1997] 1 SCR 281}}{{perSCC-H|McLachlin J}}{{atL|1fr41|9}}<br>
</ref>

The protection is "almost absolute" and cannot be balanced against other interests of justice.<ref>
{{CanLIIRxC|Nissen v Durham Regional Police|ggh2b|2015 ONSC 1268 (CanLII)}}{{perONSC|Gray J}}{{atL|ggh2b|1}}<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Named Person v Vancouver Sun|1t55c|2007 SCC 43 (CanLII)|[2007] 3 SCR 253}}{{perSCC|Bastarache  J}}{{atL|1t55c|4}} ("In my view, informer privilege must remain absolute.  Information which might tend to identify a confidential informant cannot be revealed, except where the innocence of a criminal accused is at stake.")<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Basi|26mxq|2009 SCC 52 (CanLII)|[2009] 3 SCR 389}}{{perSCC-H|Fish J}}{{atL|26mxq|37}} ("The informer privilege has been described as ‘nearly absolute'")
{{supra1|Leipert}}{{atL|1fr41|28}}<br>
{{supra1|Named Person}}{{atsL|1t55c|19| to 23}} ("courts are not entitled to balance the benefits ensuring from the privilege against countervailing considerations")<br>
{{CanLIIRx|Kosterewa|gvsnc|2016 ONSC 7231 (CanLII)}}{{perONSC|Goodman J}}{{atL|gvsnc|23}}<br>
</ref>
The protection must take the form of “blanket confidentiality”.<ref>
{{supra1|National Post}}{{atL|29l77|42}}<br>
</ref>

Informer privilege applies to oral and documentary evidence in both criminal and civil proceedings.<ref>
{{supra1|Named Persons}}{{atL|1t55c|26}}<br>
</ref>

The judge has ''no discretion'' on the application of the privilege. It only has discretion on the measures of how it is protected.<ref>
{{CanLIIRPC|Bisaillon v Keable|1lpdn|1983 CanLII 26 (SCC)|[1983] 2 SCR 60}}{{perSCC|Beetz J}}{{atp|93}} ("Its application does not depend on the judge’s discretion, as it is a legal rule of public order by which the judge is bound")<br>
{{supra1|Named Person}}{{atsL|1t55c|17|, 19}}, {{atsL-np|1t55c|21|, 23}}, and {{atsL-np|atL|1t55c|39|}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Y(X)|fkv5w|2011 ONCA 259 (CanLII)|269 CCC (3d) 534}}{{TheCourtONCA}}{{AtsL|fkv5w|1| to 2}}, {{atsL-np|fkv5w|15|}}<br>
{{CanLIIRC-N|Humphrey v Archibald et al.| (1893), 20 O.A.R. 267}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Omar|1qlqg|2007 ONCA 117 (CanLII)|218 CCC (3d) 242}}{{perONCA|Sharpe JA}}{{atL|1qlqg|37}} ("while a court can adopt discretionary measures to protect the identity of the informer, the privilege itself is “a matter beyond the discretion of a trial judge")
</ref> 

Privilege is jointly shared between the source and Crown. Consent is required from both parties before waiver can be effected.<ref>
{{supra1|Basi}}{{atL|26mxq|40}}<br>
{{supra1|Leipert}}{{atL|1fr41|15}}<br>
</ref>

Informer privilege protects names and information that “tends to reveal the identity of the informer”.<ref>
{{supra1|Basillon}}
</ref>
This includes any information that “narrows the pool” of those who have the same characteristics as the informer.<ref>
{{supra1|Omar}}{{atL|1qlqg|40}}<br>
</ref>

Where the status of privilege is uncertain, the presumption must always be that it applies.<ref>
{{supra1|Named Person}}{{atL|1t55c|47}}<br>
{{supra1|Basi}}{{atL|26mxq|44}}<br>
</ref>
Once a judge finds that privilege exists, the protection becomes absolute and no disclosure of identity is permitted.<ref>
{{supra1|Named Person}}{{atsL|1t55c|23|, {{atsL-np|1t55c|30|}}<br>
</ref>

{{reflist|2}}
===Purpose===
Informer privilege is intended to protect informants in order to:
<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|X and Y|fqff1|2012 BCSC 326 (CanLII)}}{{TheCourt}}{{AtsL|fqff1|18| to 19}}<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Named Person v Vancouver Sun|1t55c|2007 SCC 43 (CanLII)|[2007] 3 SCR 253}}{{perSCC-H|Bastarache J}}{{atL|1t55c|18}} ("Not only does the ban on revealing the informer's identity protect that informer from possible retribution, it also sends a signal to potential informers that their identity, too, will be protected. Without taking away from the particular protection afforded by the rule to an individual informer in a given case, we must emphasize the general protection afforded by the rule to all informers, past and present")<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Leipert|1fr41|1997 CanLII 367 (SCC)|[1997] 1 SCR 281}}{{perSCC-H|McLachlin J}}{{atL|1fr41|9}}<br>
</ref>
# "promote the giving of assistance to the police by citizens in the investigation and prevention of crime" and  
# protect informers from possible retribution

The protection does not intend just to protect informers but also their family and friends from retribution.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Anderson|g0hcq|2013 SKCA 92 (CanLII)|300 CCC (3d) 296}}{{perSKCA|Ottenbreit JA}}{{atL|g0hcq|142}} ("Courts have recognized that protection does not just include the informer personally, but also the family and friends associated with that person. ")
</ref>

Generally, the protection is justified to ensure the "performance of the policing function and maintenance of law and order."<ref>
{{supra1|Named Person}} (per LeBel J in dissent)<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Durham Regional Crime Stoppers Inc|h68g0|2017 SCC 45 (CanLII)|[2017] 2 SCR 157}}{{perSCC-H|Moldaver J}}{{atL|h68g0|12}}
</ref>

Privilege play an important role "in the solution of crimes and the apprehension of criminals."<ref>
{{supra1|Leipert}}{{atL|1fr41|9}}<br>
</ref> 

The position of an informer is "always precarious and their role is fraught with danger."<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Scott|1fsp3|1990 CanLII 27 (SCC)|[1990] 3 SCR 979}}{{perSCC|Cory J}}{{atL|1fsp3|32}}<br>
</ref> 
They are recognized as being at risk of retribution by those who are involved in crime.<ref>
{{supra1|Leipert}}{{atL|1fr41|9}} ("The discharge of this duty carries with it the risk of retribution from those involved in crime.")<br>
</ref>
Retribution will be "often obscenely cruel."<ref>
{{supra1|Scott}}
</ref>
Even the ''perception'' of someone as an informer may be reason to a person to be targeted for retribution.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|C(I)|2b6pw|2010 ONSC 3359 (CanLII)|[2010] OJ No 2622 (ONSC)}}{{perONSC|R Clark J}}<br>
e.g. {{CanLIIRx|Mastop|fx1r0|2012 BCSC 2085 (CanLII)}}{{perBCSC|Dickson J}} - two murders of persons suspected of being informers.
</ref>
If they are not protected, the justice system should expect "little assistance" from them.<ref> 
{{supra1|Scott}}{{atsL|1fsp3|32|, 33}} ("The role of informers in drug-related cases is particularly important and dangerous.")<br>
</ref>

The privilege has been called the "sacred cornerstone" of the justice system.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Starr|4vqd|2001 MBQB 107 (CanLII)|157 Man R (2d) 13}}{{perMBQB|Keyser J}}
</ref>
It is necessary to guarantee the "safety, indeed the lives, not only of the informers but also the undercover police officers will depend on that relationship of trust."<ref>
{{supra1|Scott}}
</ref>

{{reflist|2}}

==When it Applies==
The protection arises when a peace officer promises, either expressly or by implication, to keep the information secret in exchange for the informer to reveal the information.<ref>
{{CanLIIRPC|Bisaillon v Keable|1lpdn|1983 CanLII 26 (SCC)|[1983] 2 SCR 60}}{{perSCC|Beetz J}}{{atp|105}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Basi|26mxq|2009 SCC 52 (CanLII)|[2009] 3 SCR 389}}{{perSCC-H|Fish J}}{{atL|26mxq|36}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Barros|fnk5t|2011 SCC 51 (CanLII)|[2011] 3 SCR 368}}{{perSCC-H|Binnie J}}{{atL|fnk5t|31}}<br>
</ref>

A privilege agreement arises where a peace officer during the course of an investigation “guarantees protection and confidentiality to a protective informer in exchange for useful information”.<ref>
{{supra1|Basi}}{{atL|26mxq|36}}<br>
</ref>

The privilege will be "triggered whenever it is established that public law enforcement officials have learned the identity of an informer in the course of their investigative duties.  It is not necessary for the crown to establish the informant expected his or her identity to remain confidential."<ref>
{{CanLIIR-N|412 Electronics Corp| (1996), 47 C.R.(4th) 20, 108 Man. R. (2d) 32 (MBQB)}}{{perMBQB|Hanssen J}}{{atp|26}}</ref>

Informer privilege does not merely apply to "coded" or paid informers. It can equally apply where a police officer promises to the individual that it is "between you and me", that it does not get disclosed to anyone.<ref>
{{CanLIIRxC|Nissen v Durham Regional Police|ggh2b|2015 ONSC 1268 (CanLII)}}{{perONSC|Gray J}}
</ref>
It can apply to anonymous "crime stopper" tips.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Leipert|1fr41|1997 CanLII 367 (SCC)|[1997] 1 SCR 281}}{{perSCC-H|McLachlin J}}<br>
</ref>

Informer privilege can exist by implication where there is a promise "by implication."<ref>
{{supra1|Bisallon}}<br>
{{supra1|Barros}}{{atL|fnk5t|31}}<br>
</ref>

There would be no privilege where there is no promise or guarantee for confidentiality.<ref>
{{supra1|Barros}}{{atL|fnk5t|31}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Named Person B|fw6gk|2013 SCC 9 (CanLII)|[2013] 1 SCR 405}}{{perSCC-H|Abella J}}{{atL|fw6gk|18}}<br>
</ref>

; Who Can Raise It
Where Crown counsel fails to raise informer privilege. The Court must raise it on its own.<ref>
{{supra1|Basaillon}}{{atp|93}}<br>
{{CanLIIRx|Schertzer|1v9bx|2007 CanLII 56497 (ON SC)}}{{perONSC|Nordheimer J}} - accused police officer prohibited from raising informer privilege
</ref>

; Burden of Proof
The Crown has the burden on a balance of probabilities to establish that the source is a confidential informant.<ref>
{{supra1|Basi}}{{AtL|26mxq|39}}<br>
{{CanLIIRx|Sparks and Ritch|j6csj|2020 NSSC 125 (CanLII)}}{{perNSSC|Brothers J}}{{atL|j6csj|21}} ("The Crown has the burden on a balance of probabilities.")
</ref>

Where it is established that the person is an informer, the determination of the applicability of privilege presumes it applies.<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Sandhu|j8rph|2020 ONCA 479 (CanLII)}}{{TheCourtONCA}}{{AtL|j8rph|50}} (“ A hearing to determine the applicability of the CI privilege proceeds on the basis that the privilege does, in fact, apply:...”)<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Durham Regional Crime Stoppers Inc|h68g0|2017 SCC 45 (CanLII)|[2017] 2 SCR 157}}{{perSCC-H|Moldaver J}}{{atL|h68g0|35}}<br>
{{supra1|Basi}}{{atL|26mxq|44}}<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Named Person v Vancouver Sun|1t55c|2007 SCC 43 (CanLII)|[2007] 3 SCR 253}}{{perSCC-H|Bastarache J}}{{atL|1t55c|47}}<br>
</ref>

; Timing of Agreement
An informer privilege agreement must be agreed upon ''before'' the confidential information is shared to be valid.<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Kaboni|28sml|2010 ONCJ 91 (CanLII)}}{{perONCJ|McLeod J}}<br>
{{CanLIIR-N|Chui|2005 BCSC 353}}<br>
</ref>

; Who Can Receive Privileged Information
The privilege will equally apply where a source provides information to a state agent other than a peace officer.<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|McLellan|fw0n1|2013 BCSC 175 (CanLII)}}{{perBCSC|Willcock J}}  - informer provides tip to CRA
</ref>

; Prohibition of Weighing Interests
In light of the important objectives of this privilege, there is no ability to weigh "on a case-by-case basis the maintenance or scope of the privilege depending on what risks the informer might face."<ref>
{{CanLIIRPC|Named Person v Vancouver Sun|1t55c|2007 SCC 43 (CanLII)|[2007] 3 SCR 253}}{{perSCC-H|Bastarache J}}{{atL|1t55c|22}}<br> 
</ref>
There is no ability to weigh the privilege against any other interests other than innocence-at-stake.<ref>
{{supra1|Leipert}}{{atL|1fr41|14}}<br>
</ref>
There is no need to show that the informer is actually at risk of harm.<ref>
{{supra1|4-12 Electronic Corp}} ("I am satisfied that there is no obligation upon the Crown to show that the informers are at risk or will suffer some prejudice in order for the informer privilege to apply")
</ref> 

; Informer vs Agent
Informer privilege does ''not'' apply where the supposed informer is "agent provocateur", a material witness to a crime, or a police agent.<ref>
{{supra1|Barros}}{{atL|fnk5t|33}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Broyles|1fshb|1991 CanLII 15 (SCC)|[1991] 3 SCR 595}}{{perSCC|Iacobucci J}}{{atps|607 to 609}} - discusses police agents<br>
</ref> 
However, this does not mean that the privilege will be "lost" due to involvement in other cases.<ref>
{{Supra1|Barros}}{{atL|fnk5t|33}}<br>
{{CanLIIRx|Schertzer|1vhtc|2008 CanLII 1952 (ON SC)}}{{perONSC|Nordheimer J}} -- an informer becoming a witness does not waive unrelated informer privilege  
</ref>
The identity of an agent is disclosable.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Babes|1fb9l|2000 CanLII 16820 (ON CA)|146 CCC (3d) 465}}{{perONCA|Morden J}}{{atL|1fb9l|10}} ("In general terms, the distinction between an informer and an agent is that an informer merely furnishes information to the police and an agent acts on the direction of the police and goes “into the field” to participate in the illegal transaction in some way. The identity of an informer is protected by a strong privilege and, accordingly, is not disclosable, subject to the innocence at stake exception. The identity of an agent is disclosable.")<br>
</ref>
An informer is someone who “merely furnishes information to police”.<ref>
{{ibid1|Babes}}{{atL|1fb9l|10}}<br>
</ref>
An “agent” is one who “acts on the direction of the police and goes ‘into the field’ to participate in illegal transaction in some way’.<ref>
{{ibid1|Babes}}{{atL|1fb9l|10}}<br>
</ref>

Privilege will not be found to apply where the source is acting as a police agent or “agent provocateur”.<ref>
{{supra1|Barros}}{{atL|fnk5t|31}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Named Person B|fw6gk|2013 SCC 9 (CanLII)|[2013] 1 SCR 405}}{{perSCC-H|Abella J}}{{atL|fw6gk|18}}<br>
</ref>

A person can be both an informer and an agent provocateur in relation to separate investigations.<ref>
{{ibid1|Babes}}{{atsL|1fb9l|29| to 34}}<br>
</ref>

; Transference of Privilege
Police forces are not unified in a way that binds all police forces to provide the protections associated with privilege where one force makes such an agreement. <ref>
{{supra1|Named Person B}}{{atsL|fw6gk|23| to 24}}<br>
</ref>
However, where the informer has reasonable grounds to believe that his protection will continue to apply when he gives information to a second police force, the protection will continue.<ref>
{{ibid1|Named Person B}}{{atL|fw6gk|24}}<br>
</ref>

{{Reflist|2}}

==Effect of Privilege==
It is generally said that the prosecution does not need to disclose the identity of the police informer or provide information that may disclose the identity.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Grey|6jd5|1996 CanLII 35 (ON CA)|47 CR (4th) 40}}{{perONCA|Laskin JA}}</ref>
This is especially the case in drug trafficking cases.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Scott|1fsp3|1990 CanLII 27 (SCC)|61 CCC (3d) 300}}{{perSCC|Cory J}}</ref>

As a class privilege, once the privilege is found, Courts have no discretion whether to balance it against any other interests except those of "innocence at stake."<ref>
{{CanLIIRPC|Unnamed Person v Vancouver Sun|1t55c|2007 SCC 43 (CanLII)|[2007] 3 SCR 253}}{{perSCC-H|Bastarache J}}{{atsL|1t55c|19|, 21, and 22}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Leipert|1fr41|1997 CanLII 367 (SCC)|[1997] 1 SCR 281}}{{perSCC-H|McLachlin J}}{{atL|1fr41|14}} ("In summary, informer privilege is of such importance that it cannot be balanced against other interests.  Once established, neither the police nor the court possesses discretion to abridge it. "), see also para 12<br>
{{CanLIIRP|National Post|29l77|2010 SCC 16 (CanLII)|[2010] 1 SCR 477}}{{perSCC-H|Binnie J}} <br>
Bisaillon (“Its application does not depend on the judge’s discretion, as it is a legal rule of public order by which the judge is bound”)<br>
</ref>

Privilege prevents disclosure of the protected information both in court and in public.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Barros|fnk5t|2011 SCC 51 (CanLII)|[2011] 3 SCR 368}}{{perSCC-H|Binnie J}}{{atL|fnk5t|30}}<br>
{{supra1|Bisaillon}}
</ref>

The Court may decline to consider the Stinchcombe analysis for disclosure where it makes a finding of privilege.<ref>
e.g. {{supra1|Leipert}}{{atL|1fr41|36}}
</ref>

; Duties to Protect Privilege
The Court, police and Crown all have a duty not to breach the privilege.<ref>
{{supra1|Named Person}}{{atL|1t55c|21}}  ("...the duty of a Court not to breach the privilege is of the same nature as the duty of the police or the Crown")<br>
{{supra1|Leipert}}{{atL|1fr41|10}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Lucas|g84mv|2014 ONCA 561 (CanLII)|313 CCC (3d) 159}}{{TheCourtONCA}}{{atL|g84mv|11}}<br>
{{supra1|Barros}}{{atL|fnk5t|37}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Stinchcombe|1fsgp|1991 CanLII 45 (SCC)|[1991] 3 SCR 326, 68 CCC (3d) 1}}{{perSCC-H|Sopinka J}} ("In the case of informers the Crown has a duty to protect their identity.")<br>
</ref>

; Holder of Privilege
Informer privilege is claimed and held jointly by the Crown and the informer.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Basi|26mxq|2009 SCC 52 (CanLII)|[2009] 3 SCR 389}}{{perSCC-H|Fish J}}{{atsL|26mxq|39| to 40}}<br>
{{supra1|Lucas}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Leipert|1fr41|1997 CanLII 367 (SCC)|[1997] 1 SCR 281, 112 CCC (3d) 385}}{{perSCC-H|McLachlin J}}{{atL|1fr41|15}} ("The privilege belongs to the Crown...However, the Crown cannot, without the informer's consent, waive the privilege either expressly or by implication by not raising it... In that sense it belongs to the informer..")</ref>

; Distribution of Privileged Information
Privileged information must be kept secret and only shared with members of the police force on a "need to know" basis for "law enforcement purposes as required in the context of police informer privilege."<ref>
{{CanLIIRPC|Canada (Royal Canadian Mounted Police) v Canada (Attorney General)|1l09h|2005 FCA 213 (CanLII)|256 DLR (4th) 577}}, ''per'' Létourneau JA{{AtL|1l09h|46}} (only those "who need to know such information for law enforcement purposes as required in the context of police informer privilege") and 48<br>
see also: {{CanLIIRPC|Royal Canadian Mounted Police v Saskatchewan (Commission of Inquiry)|g9x9l|1992 CanLII 8294 (SK CA)|75 CCC (3d) 419}}{{TheCourtSKCA}}: court prohibited disclosure of privileged documents for a commission of inquiry inquiring into a fatal shooting <br>
</ref>

The "Crown" who is privy to the information should be interpreted narrowly as referring "to those persons who are directly involved in the enforcement of the law" including "police officers and Crown prosecutors who assume" these responsibilities.<ref>
{{supra1|Canada (Royal Canadian Mounted Police) v Canada (Attorney General)}}{{atsL|1l09h|41| and 43}}<br>
</ref>

The privileged information  cannot be shared with the defence until the innocence at stake exception is satisfied.<ref>
Hubbard, Law of Privilege, (May 2010) at 2-12<br>
{{supra1|Basi}}{{atsL|26mxq|43| to 44}}<br>
</ref>

By incorporating defence counsel in any in camera vetting hearing will amount to disclosure of privileged information. <ref>
{{supra1|Basi}}</ref>

{{Reflist|2}}

===Duration of Privilege and Waiver===
A judge had discretion to decline to apply the privilege where "there is no longer any need to protect the informer's identity."<ref>
{{CanLIIRPC|Unnamed Person v Vancouver Sun|1t55c|2007 SCC 43 (CanLII)|[2007] 3 SCR 253}}{{perSCC-H|Bastarache J}}{{atL|1t55c|100}} ("In my view, on a proper interpretation of informer privilege, the trial judge has at all times a discretion to decline to apply the privilege where an attempt is being made to divert it from its purpose or where there is no longer any need to protect the informer’s identify…the rule of confidentiality resulting from the privilege is not an end in itself.")
</ref>

The privilege must be waived by ''both'' the informer and the Crown.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Barros|fnk5t|2011 SCC 51 (CanLII)|[2011] 3 SCR 368}}{{perSCC-H|Binnie J}}{{atL|fnk5t|35}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Basi|26mxq|2009 SCC 52 (CanLII)|[2009] 3 SCR 389}}{{perSCC-H|Fish J}}{{atL|26mxq|40}}<br>
{{supra1|Named Person}}{{atsL|1t55c|22| to 23}}<br>
{{supra1|Leipert}}{{atsL|1fr41|12| to 15}}<br>
</ref>

The waiver must be "clear, express and informed". It cannot be "deemed or implied."<ref>
{{supra1|Schertzer}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|X and Y|fqfdv|2012 BCSC 325 (CanLII)|BCJ No 441}}{{TheCourt}}<br>
{{CanLIIRx|Sandham|26f5g|2008 CanLII 84098 (ON SC)}}{{perONSC|Heeney J}}<br>
</ref>

Informer privilege cannot be waived through accidental disclosure.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Pangman|1qwkh|2000 MBQB 43 (CanLII)|146 Man R (2d) 101}}{{perMBQB|Krindle J}}<br>
{{supra1|Shertzer}} - identity was revealed in Preliminary Inquiry<br>
{{CanLIIR-N|Hazelwood|, [2000] OJ No 459 (SCJ)}}{{ats-|18-26}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Nicholson|4xbw|2001 BCSC 752 (CanLII)|[2001] BCJ No 2239 (SC)}}{{perBCSC|K Smith J}}{{atsL|4xbw|15| to 16}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Hirschboltz|1gcp7|2004 SKQB 17 (CanLII)|}}{{perSKQB|Hunter J}}{{atsL|1gcp7|26| to 27}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Poncelet|1m98j|2005 SKQB 493 (CanLII)|[2005] SJ No 756 (Sask QB)}}{{perSKQB|Ball J}}{{atL|1m98j|16}}<br>
{{CanLIIR-N|Santos|, [2007] OJ No 5235 (ONCJ)}}{{at-|16}}<br> 
{{CanLIIR-N|Beauchamp|, [2008] OJ No 2647 (SCJ)}}{{at-|24}}<br>
</ref>

The privilege can be waived by the informer where he goes from being an informer to entering into the field as a "agent provocateur."<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Davies|gbkcz|1982 CanLII 3809 (ON CA)| , 1 CCC (3d) 299}}{{perONCA|Lacourciere JA}}<br>
</ref>

; Continuation After Death
The death of the informer does not necessarily terminate the privilege.<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|X|29tp1|2008 CanLII 87192 (ON SC)}}{{perONSC|Thorburn J}}{{atL|29tp1|38}}<br>
</ref>

The benefit of maintaining privilege after death is that it will have the effect of encouraging people to come forward by keeping it "near absolute". The privilege is meant to protect the family and friends of the informer.<Ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Anderson|g0hcq|2013 SKCA 92 (CanLII)|300 CCC (3d) 296}}{{perSKCA|Ottenbreit JA}}{{atsL|g0hcq|141| to 142}} ("... Courts have recognized that protection does not just include the informer personally, but also the family and friends associated with that person.  Also, it is critical for the police to be able to represent to the potential informers that informer privilege is “nearly absolute”...")
</ref>

; A Police Officer Accused
Where a peace officer is charged with an offence and has knowledge of informer information that would be relevant to the defence of the prosecution, they may not disclose any of that information, even to their own lawyer, without breaching privilege. The only exception would be where innocence-at-stake has been established.<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Brassington|ht362|2018 SCC 37 (CanLII)}}{{perSCC-H|Abella J}}
</ref>

{{reflist|2}}

===Subject-matter of Privilege and Redaction===
The privilege "is extremely broad in its application". It applies to oral and documentary evidence irrespective of whether the informer is participating in the hearing at all or whether it is a criminal or civil hearing.<ref>
{{CanLIIRPC|Unnamed Person v Vancouver Sun|1t55c|2007 SCC 43 (CanLII)|[2007] 3 SCR 253}}{{perSCC-H|Bastarache J}}{{atL|1t55c|26}}<br>
</ref> 
It includes "any information that might lead to identification."<ref>
{{ibid1|Unnamed Person}}{{atL|1t55c|26}}<br>
</ref>

Any information that may tend to "narrow the pool" of possible candidates who may be informers is considered privileged.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Omar|1qlqg|2007 ONCA 117 (CanLII)|218 CCC (3d) 242}}{{perONCA|Sharpe J}}
</ref>

Judges should not attempt to "step into the mind of the accused" to determine whether any information will reveal information of identity. <ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Talke|2951v|2010 ONSC 2045 (CanLII)}}{{perONSC|Hemnessy J}}<br>
</ref>
What may be innocuous to the court or counsel may be of "singular importance."<ref>
{{ibid1|Talke}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Leipert|1fr41|1997 CanLII 367 (SCC)|[1997] 1 SCR 281}}{{perSCC-H|McLachlin J}}{{AtsL|1fr41|16|}}, {{atsL-np|1fr41|35|}} (“An accused may know that only a very small circle of persons, perhaps only one, may know an apparently innocuous fact that is mentioned in the document, and therefore privilege must be respected scrupulously”)
{{CanLIIRP|Garofoli|1fss5|1990 CanLII 52 (SCC)|60 CCC (3d) 161}}{{perSCC-H|Sopinka J}}{{atL|1fss5|78}}<br>
{{supra1|Omar}}{{atL|1qlqg|44}}<br>
</ref>

There mere disclosure of the “existence or absence of a criminal record” may be enough to enable an accused to identify an informer.<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Medina-Mena|1rgv7|2007 ONCA 377 (CanLII)}}{{TheCourtONCA}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Cater|fnvz4|2011 NSPC 86 (CanLII)|985 APR 46}}{{perNSPC|Derrick J}}{{atL|fnvz4|40}}<br>
</ref>

There are several recognized categories of information that will tend to identify the informer:
# age; 
# gender; 
# occupation; 
# socio-economic status; 
# health-related issues; 
# lifestyle choices; 
# associates; 
# connection with the arrest of other persons; 
# dates, times, locations, and the fact of contact with the police as an accused, victim or witness; 
# criminal convictions, discharges, acquittals and withdrawals; 
# any indication that the informer is or has been bound by a recognizance, undertaking, probation order or prohibition order, or is or has been on parole; 
# geographical areas frequented; 
# length of time in the community; 
# length of time as an informer; and 
# motivation for providing information.

Courts have permitted defence counsel to ask a witness whether they have been an informer in the past and details about any history as an informer to support the theory that the witness invented the allegation of a drug rip off against the accused in expectation of receiving money.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Toews et al|1ld2q|2005 BCSC 727 (CanLII)|31 CR (6th) 73}}{{perBCSC|Truscott J}}</ref>

An anonymous crime stoppers tips will always be covered by the privilege.<ref>
{{supra1|Leipert}}{{atsL|1fr41|15| to 19}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Way|g6x7n|2014 NSSC 180 (CanLII)|345 NSR (2d) 258}}{{perNSSC|Arnold J}}{{atL|g6x7n|42}}<br>
</ref>

; Difficulty of Vetting
It is virtually impossible for a court to be able to discern on their own what details may reveal the identity of the informer.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Reid|gsb3w|2016 ONCA 524 (CanLII)|338 CCC (3d) 47}}{{perONCA-H|Watt JA}}{{atL|gsb3w|82}}<br>
{{supra1|Leipert}}{{atL|1fr41|28}} (It is "virtually impossible for the court to know what details may reveal the identity of an anonymous informer")<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|World Bank Group v Wallace|gpqgv|2016 SCC 15 (CanLII)|[2016] 1 SCR 207}}{{perSCC-H|Moldaver and Côté JJ}}{{atL|gpqgv|129}}<br>
</ref>

{{reflist|2}}

==Enforcement==
The Crown must establish on a balance of probabilities that the information provided by the informer is confidential informant privilege.<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Kaboni|28sml|2010 ONCJ 91 (CanLII)}}{{perONCJ|McLeod J}}}{{atsL|28sml|17| to 18}}
</ref>
This requires that the Crown establishes that the informer may be at risk<ref>
{{ibid1|Kaboni}}<br>
</ref> or that the informer was expecting protection.<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Dougan|g26pf|2013 BCPC 319 (CanLII)}}{{perBCPC|Frame J}}</ref>

Courts however are obliged to enforce informer privilege "whether it is claimed or not."<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Barros|fnk5t|2011 SCC 51 (CanLII)|[2011] 3 SCR 368}}{{perSCC-H|Binnie J}}{{atL|fnk5t|35}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Basi|26mxq|2009 SCC 52 (CanLII)|[2009] 3 SCR 389}}{{perSCC-H|Fish J}}{{atL|26mxq|38}}<br>
{{supra1|Bisaillon}}{{Atp|84}}<br>
</ref>

{{reflist|2}}
===Breach of Privilege===
The fact that privileged information is already known by all parties to the proceeding does not eliminate the privilege.<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Schertzer|1vhtc|2008 CanLII 1952 (ON SC)}}{{perONSC|Nordheimer J}}<br>
{{CanLIIR-N|Beauchamps|, 2008 CarswellOnt 3860}} <br>
</ref> 
Nor can it be grounds to suggest that others should have access to the information.<ref>
{{CanLIIRPC|Canada (Royal Canadian Mounted Police) v Canada (Attorney General)|1l09h|2005 FCA 213 (CanLII)|256 DLR (4th) 577}}, ''per'' Létourneau JA{{atL|1l09h|46}}<br>
</ref>
There can be civil liability of a breach of informer privilege.<ref>
e.g. see {{CanLIIRxC|Nissen v Durham Regional Police|ggh2b|2015 ONSC 1268 (CanLII)}}{{perONSC|Gray J}}
</ref>

A breach of privilege may have a "significant impact on future disclosures by current and prospective informers to the detriment of the administration of justice overall" resulting in a stay of proceedings.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|X|fkv5w|2011 ONCA 259 (CanLII)|269 CCC (3d) 534}}{{TheCourtONCA}} (“[o]fficial conduct such as occurred here could have a significant impact on future disclosures by current and prospective informers to the detriment of the administration of justice overall.”)<br>
</ref>

{{reflist|2}}

==Procedure==

; Preventing Disclosure of Informer Privilege
Where defence seek privileged information, the Crown may invoke s. 37(1) of the Evidence Act.
<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Sandhu|j8rph|2020 ONCA 479 (CanLII)}}{{TheCourtONCA}}{{AtL|j8rph|37}}
(“The Crown invoked s. 37(1) of the Canada Evidence Act, R.S.C., 1985, c. C-5, to resist the disclosure of any information that might tend to identify the CI and sought summary dismissal of the application based on an affidavit from the CI’s handler at TPS’s Intelligence Services.”)<br>
[[Public Interest Privilege]]
</ref>

; Determining Wether Informer is Police Agent
Where the defence allege the informer is an agent and therefore not protected by privilege, an ex party in camera can be held where defence may file written submissions on the issues and written questions for the informer’s handler.<ref>
{{ibid1|Sandhu}}{{atL|j8rph|39}} (“ With the agreement of counsel, the trial judge conducted an in camera and ex parte hearing to determine whether the CI was a police agent. Before the hearing, trial counsel for Sandhu was permitted to file an application record, a book of authorities and written submissions outlining Sandhu’s position on the issues and the outcome of the hearing. Counsel provided the judge with a list of 77 questions to be put to the CI’s handler ... [by the trial judge].“)
</ref>
Defence may also be permitted to have an amicus appointed for examination, have a redacted summary of evidence and make oral submissions.<ref>
{{ibid1|Sandhu}}{{AtL|j8rph|40}}
</ref>

{{reflist|2}}

==Procedure where ITO Relies on Confidential Informer==

When relying on a confidential informer "consideration must be given to whether the information from the informer is compelling, credible or corroborated by other aspects of the police investigation."
<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Boussoulas|gdqgs|2014 ONSC 5542 (CanLII)|320 CRR (2d) 64}}{{perONSC|Campbell J}} {{atL|gdqgs|22}}
</ref>

{{reflist|2}}

==Exception for Innocence at Stake==
The only exception to the privilege on the basis of "innocence at stake". Right to full answer and defence does not apply.<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Schertzer|1vhtc|2008 CanLII 1952 (ON SC)}}{{perONSC|Nordheimer J}}{{atL|1vhtc|11}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Leipert|1fr41|1997 CanLII 367 (SCC)|[1997] 1 SCR 281}}{{perSCC-H|McLachlin J}}<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Named Person v Vancouver Sun|1t55c|2007 SCC 43 (CanLII)|[2007] 3 SCR 253}}{{perSCC-H|Bastarache J}}{{atL|1t55c|28}}<br>
''Marks v Beyfus'' (1890), 25 Q.B.D. 494 (CA); Hardy, 24 St.Tr. 199 -  ("if upon the trial of a prisoner the judge should be of the opinion that the disclosure of the name of the informant is necessary or right in order to shew the prisoner's innocence, then one public policy is in conflict with another public policy, and that which says that an innocent man is not to be condemned when his innocence can be proved is the policy that must prevail.")
{{CanLIIRP|Stinchcombe|1fsgp|1991 CanLII 45 (SCC)|[1991] 3 SCR 326, 68 CCC (3d) 1}}{{perSCC-H|Sopinka J}}, at 14
</ref>

Infringement of privilege is “onerous” and requires that the core “issues going to the guilt of the accused are involved and there is a risk of a wrongful conviction”.<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Sandhu|j8rph|2020 ONCA 479 (CanLII)}}{{TheCourt}}{{AtL|j8rph|63}} (“It is uncontroversial that the standard to be met to pierce CI privilege – the innocence at stake test – is onerous. Infringement should only be permitted where core “issues going to the guilt of the accused are involved and there is a risk of a wrongful conviction””)<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Brassington|ht362|2018 SCC 37 (CanLII)|[2018] 2 SCR 617}}{{perSCC-H|Abella J}}{{atL|ht362|36}}<br> 
{{CanLIIRP|McClure|5228|2001 SCC 14 (CanLII)|[2001] 1 SCR 445}}{{perSCC-H|Major J}}{{atL|5528|47}}<br>
</ref>

There must be “solid evidence” to establish the necessary elements. Speculation will not do.<ref>
{{supra1|Sandhu}}{{atL|j8rph|64}}<br>
{{supra1|Named Person}}{{atL|1t55c|27}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Barros|fnk5t|2011 SCC 51 (CanLII)|[2011] 3 SCR 368}}{{perSCC-H|Binnie J}}{{AtL|fnk5t|34}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Leipert|1fr41|1997 CanLII 367 (SCC)|[1997] 1 SCR 281}}{{perSCC-H|McLachlin J}}{{atL|1fr41|21}}
</ref>

All recognized exceptions to informer privilege will be category of innocence-at-stake.<ref>
{{supra1|Named Person}}{{atL|1t55c|29}}<br>
</ref>

When innocence at stake is invoked the party seeking to rely on it must establish that:<ref>
{{supra1|McClure}}<br>
{{supra1|Brassington}}{{atL|ht362|37}}<br>
{{supra1|Named Person}}{{AtL|1t55c|27}}<br>
{{supra1|Sandhu}}{{atL|j8rph|64}}<br>
</ref>
# the information is not available from any other source;
# the accused is otherwise unable to raise a reasonable doubt.

The objective of the second step of the threshold McClure test is to “screen out” attempt to access identity information.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Brown|51tj|2002 SCC 32 (CanLII)|[2002] 2 SCR 185}}{{perSCC-H|Major J}}{{atL|51tj|55}}<br>
</ref>
It should include consideration of whether:
# The accused has shown there are no other defences; and
# the requested information would make a positive difference in the defence’s case.

There is no balancing between informer privilege and the public interest factors such as those found in s. 37(5) of the Evidence Act.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Basi|26mxq|2009 SCC 52 (CanLII)|[2009] 3 SCR 389}}{{perSCC-H|Fish J}}{{atL|26mxq|22}}<br>
</ref>

The court will only order the disclosure of the identity if it is needed to show the innocence of an accused person, known as the "innocence at stake" exception.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|X and Y|fqfdv|2012 BCSC 325 (CanLII)|BCJ No 441}}{{TheCourt}}{{atL|fqfdv|20}}<br>
{{CanLIIRPC|Bisaillon v Keable|1lpdn|1983 CanLII 26 (SCC)|[1983] 2 SCR 60}}{{perSCC|Beetz J}}<br> 
{{supra1|Leipert}}<br> 
{{supra1|Named Person v Vancouver Sun}}<br>
{{supra1|Basi}}{{atL|26mxq|22}}<br>
{{supra1|X and Y}}<br>
</ref>  
This can apply where the informer is a material witness to the offence. The determination requires balancing of the relevance of the identity of the informer and the prejudice to the informer and public interest in law enforcement.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Garofoli|1fss5|1990 CanLII 52 (SCC)|60 CCC (3d) 161}}{{perSCC-H|Sopinka J}}{{atL|1fss5|193}}</ref>

A preliminary inquiry judge does not have jurisdiction to grant relief on the basis of innocence at stake.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Richards|6h8f|1997 CanLII 3364 (ON CA)|115 CCC (3d) 377}}{{TheCourtONCA}}
</ref>

Mere speculation as to the importance of the evidence is not sufficient to engage the innocence-at-stake exception to informer privilege.<ref>
{{supra1|Liepert}}{{atL|1fr41|33}}<br>
{{supra1|Barros}}{{atL|fnk5t|34}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|McClure|5228|2001 SCC 14 (CanLII)|[2001] 1 SCR 445}}{{perSCC-H|Major J}}{{atL|5228|47}}<br>
</ref>

; "Scott" Exceptions
There is some suggestion that there could be further exception where:<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Scott|1fsp3|1990 CanLII 27 (SCC)|[1990] 3 SCR 979}}{{perSCC|Cory J}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Gagnon|1pbh7|1994 CanLII 6194 (QC CA)|35 CR (4th) 69}}{{perQCCA|Rousseau-Houle JA}} following {{ibid1|Scott}}<br>
cf. {{supra1|Bisaillon v Keable}} and {{supra1|Leipert}}<br>
</ref>
# "the informer is a material witness to the crime", 
# where the "informer has acted as agent provocateur", or 
# where "the accused seeks to establish that the search was not undertaken on reasonable grounds".

{{reflist|2}}
===Procedure===
The innocence at stake test requires to steps:<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Leipert|1fr41|1997 CanLII 367 (SCC)|[1997] 1 SCR 281}}{{perSCC-H|McLachlin J}}{{atL|1fr41|33}}<br>
{{CanLIIRx|Yakubu|1q41v|2006 CanLII 40783 (ON SC)}}{{perONSC|Corbett J}}{{atL|1q41v|20}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|McClure|5228|2001 SCC 14 (CanLII)|[2001] 1 SCR 445}}{{perSCC-H|Major J}}{{atsL|5228|50| to 51}}
</ref> 
# first the accused must "show some basis to conclude that without the disclosure sought his or her innocence is at stake";
# If established "the court may then review the information to determine whether, in fact, the information is necessary to prove the accused's innocence." The Court must only reveal such information that is "necessary" or "essential to allow proof of innocence".

{{reflist|2}}

==Other Exceptions or Exemptions==
; Familiarity
Simply because the accused is physically familiar with the source does not negate privilege.<ref>
{{supra1|Schertzer}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Phillips|gc094|1991 CanLII 11715 (ONSC)| (1991) 66 CCC (3d) 140}}{{perONSC|Salhany J}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Scott|1fsp3|1990 CanLII 27 (SCC)|61 CCC (3d) 300}}{{perSCC|Cory J}}<br>
</ref>

; Inadvertent Disclosure
There is some suggestion that disclosure of identity, whether by accident or otherwise, can render the evidence admissible.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Samson|hv0hl|1977 CanLII 2047 (QC CA)| , 35 CCC (2d) 258 (Que.C.A.)}}{{perQCCA|Montgomery JA}} - the accused peace officer testifies in his trial and states the name of an informer. Court found name still admissible.<br>
{{CanLIIRx|Napiorkowski|1f547|1997 CanLII 1346 (BC SC)}}{{perBCSC|Boyle J}} <br>
</ref>

; Notoriety Exception
Where the identity of the informer is so "notorious in the community" or "so well-known" that the identity would no longer be an issue, the privilege will not stand.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Hunter|1npn3|1987 CanLII 123 (ON CA)|34 CCC (3d) 14}}{{perONCA|Cory JA}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Mantyka|1l7n8|1999 CanLII 12414 (SK PC)|185 Sask R 243}}{{perSKPC|Whelan J}}{{atL|1l7n8|22}} citing Hunter<br>
cf. {{CanLIIRPC|Bisaillon v Keable|1lpdn|1983 CanLII 26 (SCC)|[1983] 2 SCR 60}}{{perSCC|Beetz J}} -- suggests that "notoriety exception" may not have foundation in Canadian law as it is "too vague to be followed"<br>
</ref>

{{Reflist|2}}

==Waiver==
Waiver of informer privilege must be "clear, express and informed."<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Schertzer|1vhtc|2008 CanLII 1952 (ON SC)}}{{perONSC|Nordheimer J}}{{atL|1vhtc|8}}<br>
{{CanLIIR-N|Multani|, [1999] OJ No 3487 (O.C.J.(G.D.)), paras. 21a-22}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Nicholson|4xbw|2001 BCSC 752 (CanLII)| BCTC 752}}{{perBCSC|K Smith J}}{{AtsL|4xbw|13| to 16}} esp. at 14 ("...the consent must be informed in the sense that the witness knew of his right to refuse to consent to a waiver of the privilege and that he knew of the consequences of a waiver.")
</ref>
There is no authority to suggest there can be "deemed or implicit" waiver.<ref>
{{ibid1|Schertzer}}
</ref>

The Court should not allow inadvertent disclosure to amount to waiver as it would undermine the public policy purpose of the protection.<ref>
{{supra1|Nicholson}}{{atL|4xbw|15}} ("...inadvertent disclosure of privileged information could amount to a waiver of the informer privilege would be to undermine the public policy purposes of the privilege ... courts ought not to find that either the Crown or the informer may unwittingly waive the privilege which, after all, is a protection provided for the public benefit, not just for the benefit of the particular informer.")
</ref>

However, it has been suggested that where the informant has disclosed his identity to the public, the privilege may no longer exist.<ref>
{{CanLIIR-N|Wilson|, 1995 CarswellOnt 2390, [1995] OJ No 498, 26 WCB (2d) 393}}<br>
{{CanLIIRx|Napiorkowski|1f547|1997 CanLII 1346 (BC SC)}}{{perBCSC|Boyle J}}<br>
cf. {{CanLIIRx|Sandham|26f5g|2008 CanLII 84098 (ON SC)}}{{perONSC|Heeney J}}
</ref>

By contrast giving a statement to police that includes privileged information may not amount to waiver.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Newsome|2bcb2|1996 CanLII 10583 (AB QB)|[1996] AJ No 1061}}{{perABQB|Nash J}}<br>
{{supra1|Nicholson}}<br>
</ref>

; Scope of Waiver
Waiver of privilege in relation to a proceeding does not amount to waiver of privilege in relation to all matters and investigations.<ref>
{{supra1|Sandham}}{{atsL|26f5g|24| to 28}}<br>
{{supra1|Schertzer}}{{atsL|26f5g|26| to 28}}<br>
</ref>

{{reflist|2}}
===Material Witness===
The information of a "material witness" cannot be privileged. <ref>
{{CanLIIRP|X and Y|fqfdv|2012 BCSC 325 (CanLII)|BCJ No 441}}{{TheCourt}}</ref>
This includes where the witness 
helped commit the crime or watched the offence occur.

{{reflist|2}}

==See Also==
* [[Applications for Judicial Authorizations]]
* [[Judicial Authorization Standard of Review]]