Sentencing Factors Relating to the Offender: Difference between revisions

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{{LevelZero}}{{HeaderPrinciples}}
[[fr:Facteurs_de_détermination_de_la_peine_liés_au_délinquant]]
{{Currency2|January|2023}}{{LevelZero}}{{HeaderPrinciples}}
==General Principles==
==General Principles==
{{seealso|Sentencing Factors Relating to the Offence|Sentencing Factors Relating to the Criminal Proceedings}}
{{seealso|Sentencing Factors Relating to the Offence|Sentencing Factors Relating to the Criminal Proceedings}}
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Distinctions between offender must be relevant to the degree of responsibility before they can be factored into sentencing.<Ref>
Distinctions between offender must be relevant to the degree of responsibility before they can be factored into sentencing.<Ref>
{{CanLIIR|Gerbrandt|jjmwx|2021 ABCA 346 (CanLII)}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{atL|jjmwx|85}}<br>
{{CanLIIR|Gerbrandt|jjmwx|2021 ABCA 346 (CanLII)}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{atL|jjmwx|85}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Roberts|jbxxr|2020 ABCA 434 (CanLII)|Alta. L.R. (7th) 255}}{{fix}} at paras 42-47<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Roberts|jbxxr|2020 ABCA 434 (CanLII)|Alta. L.R. (7th) 255}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{AtsL|jbxxr|42| to 47}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Ford|hxwlv|2019 ABCA 87 (CanLII)|371 CCC (3d) 250}}{{TheCourtABCA}}<Br>
{{CanLIIRP|Ford|hxwlv|2019 ABCA 87 (CanLII)|371 CCC (3d) 250}}{{TheCourtABCA}}<Br>
R v Costello, 2019 ABCA 104 at para 8<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Costello|hz7lh|2019 ABCA 104 (CanLII)|[2019] AJ No 334}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{atL|hz7lh|8}}<br>
R v Miller, 2018 ABCA 356 at paras 13-17<Br>
{{CanLIIRP|Miller|hvtt3|2018 ABCA 356 (CanLII)|2018] AJ No 1263}}{{TheCourtABCA}} (2:1){{atsL|hvtt3|13| to 17}}<Br>
R v Fuller, 2017 ABCA 361 at paras 7-18<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Fuller|hmvq6|2017 ABCA 361 (CanLII)|60 Alta LR (6th) 219}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{atL|hmvq6|7| to 18}}<br>
R v Maier, 2015 ABCA 59 at paras 31-42<Br>
{{CanLIIRP|Maier|gg85w|2015 ABCA 59 (CanLII)|599 AR 44}}{{TheCourtABCA}} (2:1){{AtL|gg85w|31| to 42}}<Br>
R v Murphy, 2014 ABCA 409, 317 CCC (3d) 314<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Murphy|gfgh6|2014 ABCA 409 (CanLII)|317 CCC (3d) 314}}{{TheCourtABCA}}<br>
R v Lausberg, 2013 ABCA 72 at para 23<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Lausberg|fz80n|2013 ABCA 72 (CanLII)|544 AR 56}}{{perABCA|McDonald J}}{{atL|fz80n|23}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Ayorech|fqjzl|2012 ABCA 82 (CanLII)|522 AR 306}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{atL|fqjzl|12}}<Br>
{{CanLIIRP|Ayorech|fqjzl|2012 ABCA 82 (CanLII)|522 AR 306}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{atL|fqjzl|12}}<Br>
R v Virani, 2012 ABCA 155 at para 16<Br>
{{CanLIIRP|Virani|frdwp|2012 ABCA 155 (CanLII)|545 WAC 328}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{atL|frdwp|16}}<Br>
{{CanLIIRP|Ramsay|fsl7t|2012 ABCA 257 (CanLII)|292 CCC (3d) 400}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{AtsL|fsl7t|15| to 34}}<Br>
{{CanLIIRP|Ramsay|fsl7t|2012 ABCA 257 (CanLII)|292 CCC (3d) 400}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{AtsL|fsl7t|15| to 34}}<Br>
R v Resler, 2011 ABCA 167 at paras 8-10{{fix}}<Br>
{{CanLIIRP|Resler|flrdq|2011 ABCA 167 (CanLII)|95 WCB (2d) 165}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{atsL|flrdq|8| to 10}}<Br>
R v Belcourt, 2010 ABCA 319 at para 8{{fix}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Belcourt|2d2hg|2010 ABCA 319 (CanLII)|490 AR 224}}{{perABCA|Slatter JA}} (2:1){{AtL|2d2hg|8}}<br>
R v B(TL), 2007 ABCA 61 at para 25{{fix}}, 218 CCC (3d) 11<br>
{{CanLIIRP|B(TL)|1ql87|2007 ABCA 61 (CanLII)|218 CCC (3d) 11}}{{perABCA|Fraser CJ}}{{AtL|1ql87|25}}<br>
R v Gibbon, 2007 ABCA 300 at para 12{{fix}}<Br>
{{CanLIIRP|Gibbon|1t010|2007 ABCA 300 (CanLII)|417 AR 37}}{{perABCA|Costigan JA}}{{atL|1t010|12}}<Br>
R v Diebel, 2007 ABCA 418 at paras 16-23{{fix}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Diebel|1v8gg|2007 ABCA 418 (CanLII)}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{AtsL|1v8gg|16| to 23}}<br>
</ref>  
</ref>  


{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}


==Criminal Record==
{{seealso|Effect of Criminal Records in Sentencing|Notice of Increased Penalty#Proving Prior Record|Jump, Step and Gap Principles‎}}


==Age and Youthfulness==
==Age and Youthfulness==
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{{supra1|Scott}}{{atL|ggl3g|13}}<br>
{{supra1|Scott}}{{atL|ggl3g|13}}<br>
</ref>
</ref>
The factor becomes less important when the youthful offender has "considerable amount of experience in the criminal justice system, has been subject to various forms of probationary and correctional supervision, and has not only breached those conditions but has also re-offended".<ref>
The factor becomes less important when the youthful offender has "considerable amount of experience in the criminal justice system, has been subject to various forms of probationary and correctional supervision, and has not only breached those conditions but has also re-offended."<ref>
{{supra1|Scott}}{{atL|ggl3g|13}}<br>
{{supra1|Scott}}{{atL|ggl3g|13}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Quesnel|gb2c4|1984 CanLII 3475 (ON CA)|14 CCC (3d) 254}}{{perONCA|Thorson JA}}{{atp|255}} (CCC)<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Quesnel|gb2c4|1984 CanLII 3475 (ON CA)|14 CCC (3d) 254}}{{perONCA|Thorson JA}}{{atp|255}} (CCC)<br>
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</ref>
</ref>


The "length of a penitentiary sentence for a youthful offender should rarely be determined solely by the objectives of denunciation and general deterrence".<ref>
The "length of a penitentiary sentence for a youthful offender should rarely be determined solely by the objectives of denunciation and general deterrence."<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Borde|1c062|2003 CanLII 4187 (ON CA)|63 OR (3d) 417}}{{perONCA|Rosenberg JA}} (3:0){{atL|1c062|36}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Borde|1c062|2003 CanLII 4187 (ON CA)|63 OR (3d) 417}}{{perONCA|Rosenberg JA}} (3:0){{atL|1c062|36}}<br>
</ref>
</ref>
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</ref>
</ref>


At a certain age there is a recognized category of offender for which imprisonment would be considered "pointless or an unreasonable burden".<ref>
At a certain age there is a recognized category of offender for which imprisonment would be considered "pointless or an unreasonable burden."<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Cromwell|1q355|2006 ABCA 365 (CanLII)|214 CCC (3d) 502}}{{perABCA|O’Brien JA}}{{atL|1q355|16}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Cromwell|1q355|2006 ABCA 365 (CanLII)|214 CCC (3d) 502}}{{perABCA|O’Brien JA}}{{atL|1q355|16}}<br>
{{CanLIIR-N|Nezic|, [1976] BCJ No 1154 (CA)}} - 77 year old offender in poor health<br>
{{CanLIIR-N|Nezic|, [1976] BCJ No 1154 (CA)}} - 77 year old offender in poor health<br>
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e.g. {{CanLIIRP|Bulleyment|htvvq|1979 CanLII 2922 (ON CA)|46 CCC (2d) 429}}{{perONCA-H|Martin JA}}<br>
e.g. {{CanLIIRP|Bulleyment|htvvq|1979 CanLII 2922 (ON CA)|46 CCC (2d) 429}}{{perONCA-H|Martin JA}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Odgers|1nvxg|2006 ABPC 163 (CanLII)|400 AR 322}}{{perABPC|JDB McDonald J}}{{atL|1nvxg|29}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Odgers|1nvxg|2006 ABPC 163 (CanLII)|400 AR 322}}{{perABPC|JDB McDonald J}}{{atL|1nvxg|29}}<br>
</ref>
; Maturity of Adults
The naivete and immaturity are valid mitigating factors affecting culpability.<Ref>
{{CanLIIRP|McLean|gsr8m|2016 SKCA 93 (CanLII)|132 WCB (2d) 96}}{{perSKCA|Ottenbreit JA}}<Br>
see also {{CanLIIRP|Vandenbosch|1t2r7|2007 MBCA 113 (CanLII)}}{{perMBCA|Chartier JA}}{{AtL|1t2r7|95}}<br>
</ref>
</ref>


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{{CanLIIRP|AR|1npk9|1994 CanLII 4524 (MB CA)|[1994] MJ No 89, 92 Man R (2d) 183 (CA)}}{{perMBCA|Twaddle JA}}<Br>
{{CanLIIRP|AR|1npk9|1994 CanLII 4524 (MB CA)|[1994] MJ No 89, 92 Man R (2d) 183 (CA)}}{{perMBCA|Twaddle JA}}<Br>
</ref>
</ref>
{{reflist|2}}
==Employment==
In general, a good work history is mitigating as it indicates a prior good character.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Johnston|fmqxj|2011 NLCA 56 (CanLII)|274 CCC (3d) 388}}{{perNLCA|White JA}} (3:0){{atL|fmqxj|21}}</ref>
The offender's "opportunity for employment" is an important factor to determine if there is a "reasonable prospect for rehabilitation". <ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Hunt|fpvck|2012 NLCA 5 (CanLII)|100 WCB (2d) 602}}{{perNLCA|Barry JA}} (3:0){{atL|fpvck|19}}</ref>
A judge may take [[Judicial Notice|judicial notice]] that a first-time offender receiving a criminal conviction will negatively impact their future in various ways including employment and travel.<REf>
R v Edmunds, 2012 NLCA 26 at para 20{{fix}}
</ref>
{{reflist|2}}
===Professionals===
; Police Officers
{{seealso|Violent and Assaultive Offences (Sentencing)#Peace Officers as Offender|Assaults Relating to Persons in Authority (Sentencing Cases)}}
Offences committed by persons who are "sworn to uphold the law" such as police officers have a "special duty to be faithful to the justice system" and so sentences require the objectives of denunciation has heightened significance.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Hansen|grx7v|2016 ONSC 3583 (CanLII)|30 CR (7th) 117}}{{perONSC|Braid J}}{{atsL|grx7v|28| to 29}}<Br>
{{CanLIIRP|Schertzer|gh86h|2015 ONCA 259 (CanLII)|325 CCC (3d) 202}}{{perONCA|Benotto JA}}{{atsL|gh86h|134| to 136}} - re "special duty"<Br>
</ref>
Police officer offenders who commit a breach of trust will be subject to "severe sentences" absent exceptional mitigating factors.<ref>
{{supra1|Hansen}}{{atL|grx7v|28}}<Br>
{{CanLIIRP|Cook|2czk3|2010 ONSC 5016 (CanLII)|OJ No 4414}}{{perONSC|Hill J}}<Br>
{{CanLIIRP|Rudge|g2lwx|2014 ONSC 241 (CanLII)|OJ No 113}}{{perONSC|Hambly J}}<Br>
{{CanLIIRP|Leblanc|1v2|2003 NBCA 75 (CanLII)|180 CCC (3d) 265}}{{perNBCA|Drapeau CJ}}<Br>
</ref>
A peace officer being sentenced to a period of incarceration is at risk from the general population and will inevitably serve much of the sentence in protective custody, which should warrant mitigating the punishment.<ref>
{{supra1|Cook}}{{atL|2czk3|43}} ("Because an inmate who is known to be, or discoverable as, a former police officer is at risk from general population prisoners, such an offender will almost inevitably serve much or all of the sentence in protective custody. This reality, involving as it does more limited social contact and institutional amenities, ordinarily warrants consideration in mitigation of punishment.")<br>
{{supra1|Rudge}}{{atL|g2lwx|23}}<br>
</ref>
{{reflist|2}}
===Effect on Employment and Status===
Loss of professional or social status is not generally a mitigating factor nor is the ability to do a particular job well a mitigating factor.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Ambrose|5rqs|2000 ABCA 264 (CanLII)|234 WAC 161}}{{perABCA|Cote JA}} (2:1){{atL|5rqs|37}}</ref>
However, it has been said that the "ruin and humiliation" brought upon the accused and his family as well as the loss of professional status can provide denunciation and deterrence.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Bunn|527l|2000 SCC 9 (CanLII)|[2000] 1 SCR 183}}{{perSCC|Lamer J}} (5:3){{atL|527l|23}}</ref>


{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}
Line 140: Line 100:
See {{CanLIIRP|Kakekagamick|1p52k|2006 CanLII 28549 (ON CA)|[2006] 81 OR (3d) 664, 211 CCC (3d) 289}}{{perONCA|Laforme JA}} (3:0){{atL|1p52k|73}} ("[his] failure to accept responsibility for his actions weighs against affording him significant consideration by way of mitigation")<br>
See {{CanLIIRP|Kakekagamick|1p52k|2006 CanLII 28549 (ON CA)|[2006] 81 OR (3d) 664, 211 CCC (3d) 289}}{{perONCA|Laforme JA}} (3:0){{atL|1p52k|73}} ("[his] failure to accept responsibility for his actions weighs against affording him significant consideration by way of mitigation")<br>
{{CanLIIRx|Wowk|j60j9|2020 ABCA 119 (CanLII)}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{atL|j60j9|23}}<Br>
{{CanLIIRx|Wowk|j60j9|2020 ABCA 119 (CanLII)}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{atL|j60j9|23}}<Br>
{{CanLIIRP|Valentini|1f979|1999 CanLII 1885 (ON CA)|132 CCC (3d) 262, 43 OR (3d) 178}}{{atsL||82| to 83}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Valentini|1f979|1999 CanLII 1885 (ON CA)|132 CCC (3d) 262, 43 OR (3d) 178}}{{atsL|1f979|82| to 83}}<br>
See also {{CanLIIRP|Kozy|1p78m|1990 CanLII 2625 (ON CA)|58 CCC (3d) 500}}{{perONCA|Carthy JA}} (3:0){{Atps|505-506}}<br>  
See also {{CanLIIRP|Kozy|1p78m|1990 CanLII 2625 (ON CA)|58 CCC (3d) 500}}{{perONCA|Carthy JA}} (3:0){{Atps|505-506}}<br>  
{{CanLIIRP|Anderson|2327s|1992 CanLII 6002 |}}{{perBCCA|Southin JA}}{{atps|535-536}}<br>  
{{CanLIIRP|Anderson|2327s|1992 CanLII 6002 |}}{{perBCCA|Southin JA}}{{atps|535-536}}<br>  
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</ref>
</ref>


An offender who "continues to maintain his innocence" cannot be found by that fact alone to lack "remorse or insight".<ref>
An offender who "continues to maintain his innocence" cannot be found by that fact alone to lack "remorse or insight."<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Yau|2fs0d|2011 ONSC 1009 (CanLII)|OJ No 720}}{{perONSC|MacDonnell J}}{{atL|2fs0d|27}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Yau|2fs0d|2011 ONSC 1009 (CanLII)|OJ No 720}}{{perONSC|MacDonnell J}}{{atL|2fs0d|27}}<br>
see, e.g. {{CanLIIRP|Valentini|1f979|1999 CanLII 1885 (ON CA)|132 CCC (3d) 262}}{{perONCA|Rosenberg JA}}<br>
see, e.g. {{CanLIIRP|Valentini|1f979|1999 CanLII 1885 (ON CA)|132 CCC (3d) 262}}{{perONCA|Rosenberg JA}}<br>
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; Strong Case
; Strong Case
Remorse has little importance when the case is so strong that "guilt is inevitable".<ref>
Remorse has little importance when the case is so strong that "guilt is inevitable."<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Singh|hsm3k|2018 ONSC 3850 (CanLII)}}{{perONSC|Harris J}}<br>
{{CanLIIRx|Singh|hsm3k|2018 ONSC 3850 (CanLII)}}{{perONSC|Harris J}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Faulds|6k6m|1994 CanLII 770 (ON CA)|, 20 OR (3d) 13}}{{TheCourtONCA}}{{atL|6k6m|14}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Faulds|6k6m|1994 CanLII 770 (ON CA)|, 20 OR (3d) 13}}{{TheCourtONCA}}{{atL|6k6m|14}}<br>
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; Misconduct Negating Remorse
; Misconduct Negating Remorse
Where there is misconduct on the part of the accused during the course of proceedings, it will be "much more difficult to perceive the existence of remorse".<ref>
Where there is misconduct on the part of the accused during the course of proceedings, it will be "much more difficult to perceive the existence of remorse."<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Sawchyn|fp6pw|1981 ABCA 173 (CanLII)|124 DLR (3d) 600}}{{perABCA|Laycraft JA}}{{atL|fp6pw|34}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Sawchyn|fp6pw|1981 ABCA 173 (CanLII)|124 DLR (3d) 600}}{{perABCA|Laycraft JA}}{{atL|fp6pw|34}}<br>
{{CanLIIRx|Nyoni|hms13|2017 BCCA 360 (CanLII)}}{{perBCCA|Newbury JA}}{{atL|hms13|8}}<br>
{{CanLIIRx|Nyoni|hms13|2017 BCCA 360 (CanLII)}}{{perBCCA|Newbury JA}}{{atL|hms13|8}}<br>
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==Character==
==Character==
A mitigating factor that may be considered is whether the offence is "out of character".<ref>
A mitigating factor that may be considered is whether the offence is "out of character."<ref>
{{CanLIIR|Shrivastava|j265q|2019 ABQB 663 (CanLII)}}{{perABQB|Antonio J}} at paras 72-93<Br>
{{CanLIIR|Shrivastava|j265q|2019 ABQB 663 (CanLII)}}{{perABQB|Antonio J}}{{atsL|j265q|72| to 93}}<Br>
https://canlii.ca/t/#par127
{{CanLIIR|Misay|jgkks|2021 ABQB 485 (CanLII)}}{{atL|jgkks|127}}
{{CanLIIR|Misay|jgkks|2021 ABQB 485 (CanLII)}}{{atL|jgkks|127}}
</ref>
</ref>
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There is some criticism of the mitigating effect of character. All persons are obligated to "obey the law" and should not be used as "credit against punishment" for the commission of an offence.<Ref>
There is some criticism of the mitigating effect of character. All persons are obligated to "obey the law" and should not be used as "credit against punishment" for the commission of an offence.<Ref>
{{supra1|Misay}} at para 128 ("Justice Antonio also pointed out that obeying the law, an obligation we all bear, cannot be taken to earn credit against punishment for commission of a serious offence")<br>
{{supra1|Misay}}{{atL|jgkks|128}} ("Justice Antonio also pointed out that obeying the law, an obligation we all bear, cannot be taken to earn credit against punishment for commission of a serious offence")<br>
{{supra1|Shrivastava}} at para 78
{{supra1|Shrivastava}}{{atL|j265q|78}}
</ref>
</ref>
It is also considered an "unprincipled" use of "personal history" evidence.<Ref>
It is also considered an "unprincipled" use of "personal history" evidence.<Ref>
{{supra1|Misay}} at para 127
{{supra1|Misay}}{{atL|jgkks|127}}
</ref>
</ref>


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; Correctional Records
; Correctional Records
The disciplinary records of a remanded accused should not generally be used as aggravating to the sentence.<Ref>
The disciplinary records of a remanded accused should not generally be used as aggravating to the sentence.<Ref>
{{CanLIIR|Clarke-McNeil||2022 NSSC 63 (CanLII)}}
{{CanLIIR|Clarke-McNeil|jn2s0|2022 NSSC 63 (CanLII)}}{{perNSSC|Campbell J}}
</ref>
</ref>
But they can be used to rebut assertions of good character as a mitigating factor.<Ref>
But they can be used to rebut assertions of good character as a mitigating factor.<Ref>
Line 306: Line 265:
</ref>
</ref>


{{reflist|2}}
; Abuse by Victim
 
The presence of long-term abuse by the victim can be mitigating.<REf>
==Addiction and Substance Abuse==
{{CanLIIRP|Dunlap|1ms5v|1991 CanLII 2519 (NS CA)|101 N.S.R. (2d) 263}}{{perNSCA-H|Matthews JA}}<Br>
Substance abuse, by itself, is not ordinarily a mitigating factor.<ref>
{{CanLIIR-N|Drake|, [1995] O.J. No. 4375 (Gen. Div.)}} online: Quicklaw (OJ) <Br>
{{CanLIIRP|Ayorech|fqjzl|2012 ABCA 82 (CanLII)|522 AR 306}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{atL|fqjzl|10}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Cormier|hv05h|1974 CanLII 1577 (NS CA)|9 NSR (2d) 687, 22 CCC (2d) 235}}{{perNSCA|Macdonald JA}}<Br>
cf. see {{CanLIIRP|Sheppard|27psj|1997 CanLII 14629 (NL CA)|147 Nfld. & PEIR 304}}{{perNLCA|O'Neill JA}}<br>  
cf. {{CanLIIRP|Lane|fww3f|2004 NLSCTD 49 (CanLII)|[2004] NJ No 95 (S.C.)}}{{perNLSC|LeBlanc J}}<br>
cf. {{CanLIIRP|Breen|gbrz7|1982 CanLII 3889 (NL CA)|37 Nfld. & PEIR 472}}{{perNLCA|Gushue JA}} (“the effect of alcohol or drugs” can be considered as mitigating factors in sentencing, “that consideration is normally confined to cases where the actions of a person are completely out of character. Thus, lenient treatment may be justified in anticipation of rehabilitation")<br>
</ref>
Nor is a history of addiction a mitigating factor to sentence. However, it can suggest a lower level of moral culpability and otherwise good character but for the addiction. It is also helpful for the court to know about to determine whether rehabilitation is a possibility when crafting an appropriate sentence.
 
Gambling addiction is not generally a mitigating factor.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Holmes|5s4c|1999 ABCA 228 (CanLII)|237 AR 146}}{{TheCourtABCA}}<br>
cf. {{CanLIIRP|Wilson|frb00|2012 NSPC 40 (CanLII)|1002 APR 96}}{{perNSPC|Ross J}}<br>
</ref>
However, some courts have treated it as a reduction to moral culpability as it has the effect of reducing the accused's free will and power of control due to a mental disease.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Horvath|1mctn|1997 CanLII 9759 (SK CA)|[1997] SJ No 385}}{{perSKCA|Bayda CJ}}<Br>
</ref>
</ref>


An offender with issues with substance abuse may be subject to probationary terms requiring them to abstain absolutely from the possession or consumption of the substances. However, some courts will take the view that such restrictions can be counter-productive where there is no belief that they will comply with the conditions.<ref>
This may be manifested as "battered woman syndrome".<Ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Warren|fstt4|2012 CanLII 54025 (NL PC)}}{{perNLPC|Gorman J}}{{atL|fstt4|58}}</ref>
R. v. Phillips, [1992] O.J. No. 2716 (Gen. Div.)<Br>
 
R. v. Bennett, [1993] O.J. No. 1011 (Prov. Div.)<br>
; Addictions and Mental Health
It has been noted that the combination of addiction and mental health make rehabilitation harder.<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Fuller|hmvq6|2017 ABCA 361 (CanLII)}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{AtL|hmvq6|13}}<br>
</ref>
</ref>


{{reflist|2}}
There can be mitigation where the conduct was "impulsive" or an immediate reaction in response to a perceived (or real) wrong by the victim.<Ref>
 
{{CanLIIRP|Kipling|g9mpr|1992 CanLII 13189 (MB CA)|83 Man. R. (2d) 6}}{{perMBCA|Scott CJ}}<br>
==Medical Conditions==
{{CanLIIRP|McLeod (L.S.)|1mqmq|1994 NSCA 151 (CanLII)|132 NSR (2d) 118}}{{perNSCA|Freeman JA}}<br>
Generally speaking the existence of medical conditions cannot be use to avoid what is otherwise a fit and proper sentence.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Whynot|1mptf|1996 NSCA 53 (CanLII)|147 NSR (2d) 111}}{{perNSCA|Pugsley JA}} <br>
{{CanLIIRx|Bulic|jccfq|2020 ONCA 845 (CanLII)}}{{TheCourtONCA}}{{atL|jccfq|13}}<Br>
{{CanLIIRx|Heron|h41zt|2017 ONCA 441 (CanLII)}}{{atL|h41zt|25}} ("medical conditions cannot generally be used to avoid what is otherwise a fit and proper sentence")
</ref>
If health is being used to avoid a jail sentence there must be some evidence showing that the condition cannot be properly treated in jail.<reF>
{{CanLIIR|HS|g6mkb|2014 ONCA 323 (CanLII)}}{{perONCA|Epstein JA}}
</reF>
 
{{reflist|2}}
===Mental Health===
Mental health can be a mitigating factor to sentence even where it is not so severe to remove criminal responsibility.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Peters|1nc5q|2000 NFCA 55 (CanLII)|194 Nfld. & PEIR 184 (NLCA)}}{{perNLCA|Green JA}}, (“the mental illness of an offender will often be considered a mitigating factor in sentencing even though it is not of the sort that would establish a verdict of not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder at the time of the commission of the offence.”)</ref>
 
Reduction of sentences due to psychiatric grounds fall into two categories. The mental illness contributed to or caused the commission of the offence or the effect of imprisonment or penalty would be disproportionately severe because of the offender's condition.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Belcourt|2d2hg|2010 ABCA 319 (CanLII)|490 AR 224}}{{perABCA|Slatter JA}} (2:1){{atL|2d2hg|8}}<Br>
</ref>
 
An offender's emotional condition due to the personal circumstances of the accused should not be conflated with "mental health problems" that should accord some special treatment in sentence.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Lausberg|fz80n|2013 ABCA 72 (CanLII)|544 AR 56}}{{perABCA|McDonald JA}} - Sentencing judge erred by considering the emotional state as being a mental health problem<br>
</ref>
 
The offender must show that a lengthy sentence would have a "severe negative effect on the offender such that it should be reduced on compassionate grounds".<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Prioriello|fsklm|2012 ONCA 63 (CanLII)|288 OAC 198}}{{perONSC|O'Connor J}}{{atL|fsklm|12}}
</ref>
 
; Causal Connection
Generally, for a mental illness is to be considered mitigating, the offender must show that there is a causal link between the condition and the criminal conduct.<ref>
{{ibid1|Prioriello}}{{atL|fsklm|11}} ("In order for a mental illness to be considered as a mitigating factor in sentencing, the offender must show a causal link between his illness and his criminal conduct, that is, the illness is an underlying reason for his aberrant conduct")<Br>
{{CanLIIR-N|Robinson|, [1974] O.J. No. 585 (C.A.)}}
</ref>
 
Mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, can be a mitigating factor even when there is no a direct causal connection between the offence and the illness. <ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Ayorech|fqjzl|2012 ABCA 82 (CanLII)|[2012] AJ No 236}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{atL|fqjzl|10}} (“mental disorders, particularly schizophrenia, can significantly mitigate a sentence, even if the evidence does not disclose that the mental illness was the direct cause of the offence or that it was carried out during a period of delusions, hallucinations, or such.”)</ref>
This is also true where the offender was not suffering from delusions at the time.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Resler|flrdq|2011 ABCA 167 (CanLII)|95 WCB (2d) 165}}{{TheCourtABCA}} (3:0)<br>
{{ibid1|Ayorech}}</ref>
It is sufficient that the illness contributed in some way to the offence.<ref>
{{supra1|Belcourt}}</ref>
However, the offender's mental health condition is not a factor in sentencing where there is no connection at all between the offence and the condition.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Shahnawaz|1fbgv|2000 CanLII 16973 (ON CA)|149 CCC 97}}{{perONCA|Charron JA}}</ref>
 
By contrast, a person who commits a crime of violence "while in a sane and sober condition, unaffected by mental impairment of any kind, has the highest level of responsibility, or moral culpability."<ref>
{{CanLIIR-N|Hagendorf|, 2000 CarswellOnt 5245 (S.C.)}}{{perONSC|Durno J}}{{at-|50}}</ref>
 
; Incarceration
Treatment in the community is generally preferred over incarceration.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Lundrigan|fs0sg|2012 NLCA 43 (CanLII)|[2012] NJ No 231 (NLCA)}}{{perNLCA|Rowe JA}}{{atL|fs0sg|20}}<br>
</ref>
However, this is less so for serious offences.<ref>
see {{CanLIIR-N|JM|, [2008] NJ No 262 (P.C.)}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Taylor|fs56r|2012 CanLII 42053 (NLPC)|[2012] NJ No 251 (P.C.)}}{{perNLPC|Mennie J}}<br>
</ref>
 
Mental illness is often considered a basis to order treatment and supervision over punishment.<ref>
see {{CanLIIRP|Valiquette|1phqx|1990 CanLII 3048|60 CCC (3d) 325}}{{perQCCA|Rothman JA}}{{atp|331}} (“most people understand that the mentally ill require treatment and supervision, not punishment”)</ref>
 
; Deterrence and Denunciation
General deterrence should be given "very little, if any, weight" since it is not an appropriate manner of making an example to others.<ref>
{{supra1|Belcourt}}{{atL|2d2hg|8}}
</ref>
 
Where mental health plays "a central role in the commission of the offence ... deterrence and punishment assume less importance".<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Batisse|22cd6|2009 ONCA 114 (CanLII)|241 CCC (3d) 491}}{{perONCA|Gillese JA}}<br>
</ref>
 
However, at times mental illness will be considered an aggravating factor that will increase sentence where it is necessary to protect the public from a dangerous persons who has committed a dangerous offence.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Lockyer|1nc5p|2000 NLCA 59 (CanLII)|[2000] NJ No 306}}{{perNLCA|Roberts JA}} (2:1)</ref>
Mental illness reduces the importance of denunciation and deterrence and increases the importance of treatment. This includes situations where rehabilitation or cure is impossible.<ref>
{{CanLIIR-N|Hiltermann|, [1993] AJ No 609 (CA)}}{{ats-|4-8}}</ref>
 
It is suggested it should be given little if any weight since the punishing of the offender will not make an example to others by way of general deterrence.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Newby|2dth0|1991 ABCA 307 (CanLII)|84 Alta LR (2d) 127}}{{perABCA|Foisy JA}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Rhyno|2694m|2009 NSCA 108 (CanLII)|900 APR 246}}{{perNSCA|Oland JA}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Dickson|1tsdq|2007 BCCA 561 (CanLII)|228 CCC (3d) 450}}{{perBCCA|Finch CJ}} (3:0)<br>
</ref>
 
The mental condition will attenuate the relative importance of deterrence and denunciation.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Tremblay|1p97b|2006 ABCA 252 (CanLII)|401 AR 9}}{{perABCA|Martin JA}}{{atL|1p97b|7}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Resler|flrdq|2011 ABCA 167 (CanLII)|95 WCB (2d) 165}}{{TheCourtABCA}} (3:0){{atL|flrdq|14}}<br>
</ref>
 
; Degree of Responsibility
A mental illness diminishes the offender’s degree of responsibility.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Ayorech|fqjzl|2012 ABCA 82 (CanLII)|522 AR 306}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{atL|fqjzl|12}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Resler|flrdq|2011 ABCA 167 (CanLII)|95 WCB (2d) 165}}{{TheCourtABCA}}{{atsL|flrdq|9| to 10}}, {{atsL-np|flrdq|16|}}<br>
{{supra1|Belcourt}}{{atsL|2d2hg|7| to 8}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Muldoon|1pzrv|2006 ABCA 321 (CanLII)|213 CCC (3d) 468}}{{TheCourtABCA}} (3:0){{atsL|1pzrv|9| to 10}}</ref>
 
; Impact of Jail
Incarceration of persons with mental health issues can create a disproportionate impact upon them, which can be a mitigating factor.<ref>
{{supra1|Newby}}<br>
{{supra1|Ayorech}}<br>
</ref>
 
An Offenders mental illness can make a jail sentence more severe.<ref>
{{supra1|Ayorech}} at 13  (“Ayorech’s mental disorders have left him vulnerable, such that Dr. Santana opined that he ‘was ill equipped to survive in the prison system.’")</ref>
 
While it has also been observed that the managing of mental health issues and other medical factors are best handled by correctional authorities who are obligated to provide essential health care including mental health care.<Ref>
{{CanLIIRx|CF|jb5zd|2020 ONSC 5975 (CanLII)}}{{perONSC|Leibovich J}}{{atL|jb5zd|57}}<Br>
{{CanLIIRP|Shahnawaz|1fbgv|2000 CanLII 16973 (ON CA)|149 CCC (3d) 97}}{{perONCA|Charron JA}} (2:1){{AtsL|1fbgv|30| to 34}}<br>
{{supra1|Prioriello}}
</ref>
 
It is recognized that it is "difficult" to predict the mental health condition of persons in custody.<ref>
{{ibid1|Shahnawaz}}{{atL|1fbgv|34}}
</ref>
 
; Cognitive Deficits
Diminished intellectual capacity is not a mitigating factor warranting a lesser sentence.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|H(MJ)|1jjnk|2004 SKCA 171 (CanLII)|257 Sask R 1}}{{perSKCA|Richards JA}} (3:0)
</ref>
 
The cognitive deficit from Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) results in limited restraints as well as an appreciation of the immorality of their actions. This reduces the impact on deterrence and denunciation and increases the mitigation on sentence.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Ramsay|fsl7t|2012 ABCA 257 (CanLII)|292 CCC (3d) 400}}{{TheCourtABCA}} (3:0)</ref>
 
Systemic failures to treat the offender's mental health are mitigating factors.<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Adamo|g0ptp|2013 MBQB 225 (CanLII)}}{{perMBQB|Suche J}}<br>
{{supra1|Ayorech}} <Br>
</ref>
 
; Other Conditions
There has been some reference to PTSD being a mitigating condition.<Ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Walendzewicz|j4b3x|2020 ONSC 57 (CanLII)}}{{atL|j4b3x|37}}
</ref>
</ref>


Line 464: Line 286:


==Cultural Background==
==Cultural Background==
It has been observed that the purposes and principles of sentencing are "sufficiently broad and flexible to enable a sentencing court in appropriate cases to consider both the systemic and background factors that may have played a role in the commission of the offence and the values of the community from which the offender comes".<ref>
It has been observed that the purposes and principles of sentencing are "sufficiently broad and flexible to enable a sentencing court in appropriate cases to consider both the systemic and background factors that may have played a role in the commission of the offence and the values of the community from which the offender comes."<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Borde|1c062|2003 CanLII 4187 (ON CA)|172 CCC (3d) 225}}{{perONCA|Rosenberg JA}}<Br>
{{CanLIIRP|Borde|1c062|2003 CanLII 4187 (ON CA)|172 CCC (3d) 225}}{{perONCA|Rosenberg JA}}<Br>
{{CanLIIRx|Rage|hqqpx|2018 ONCA 211 (CanLII)}}{{TheCourtONCA}} (3:0){{atL|hqqpx|13}}<br>
{{CanLIIRx|Rage|hqqpx|2018 ONCA 211 (CanLII)}}{{TheCourtONCA}} (3:0){{atL|hqqpx|13}}<br>
</ref>
</ref>


Cultural and customary differences cannot be considered mitigating where it involves offences of violence or offences of a sexual nature.<ref>
There mere existence of cultural or customary differences between the accused's culture and Canadian norms cannot be used as an excuse or as mitigation.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Brown|1p6kf|1992 CanLII 2829 (AB CA)|73 CCC (3d) 242}}{{TheCourtABCA}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|E(H)|gk339|2015 ONCA 531 (CanLII)|336 OAC 363}}{{perONCA|Benotto JA}}{{atL|gk339|33}}<Br>
{{CanLIIRP|Brown|1p6kf|1992 CanLII 2829 (AB CA)|73 CCC (3d) 242}}{{TheCourtABCA}} re offences of violence or sexual violence<br>
</ref>
To do otherwise creates a problem that new immigrants will not recieve "true protection" of the law.<Ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Teclesenbet|272df|2009 ABCA 389 (CanLII)|469 AR 193}}{{perABCA|McDonald JA}}{{atL|272df|9}}
</ref>
</ref>


However, a lack of facility with English has been treated as mitigating in certain circumstances.<ref>
A lack of facility with English has been treated as mitigating in certain circumstances.<ref>
{{CanLIIR-N|Huang|, [2005] OJ No 1855 (SCJ)}}{{at-|21}}<br>
{{CanLIIR-N|Huang|, [2005] OJ No 1855 (SCJ)}}{{at-|21}}<br>
{{CanLIIR-N|Shaliwal|, [2011] MJ No 213(Q.B.)}}{{at-|41}}<br>
{{CanLIIR-N|Shaliwal|, [2011] MJ No 213(Q.B.)}}{{at-|41}}<br>
Line 492: Line 318:
{{CanLIIR-N|FDM| (1995), 29 WBC 148 (AltaCA)}}</ref>
{{CanLIIR-N|FDM| (1995), 29 WBC 148 (AltaCA)}}</ref>


In some cases, sympathy for family members of the accused may be relevant. But it should not "override all other of the considerations for sentencing".<ref>
In some cases, sympathy for family members of the accused may be relevant. But it should not "override all other of the considerations for sentencing."<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Schmitt|g65j1|2014 ABCA 105 (CanLII)}}{{TheCourtABCA}} (3:0){{atL|g65j1|11}}<br>
{{CanLIIRx|Schmitt|g65j1|2014 ABCA 105 (CanLII)}}{{TheCourtABCA}} (3:0){{atL|g65j1|11}}<br>
</ref>
</ref>
Line 498: Line 324:
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}


==Effect on Family and Others==
==Criminal Record==
The effect of incarceration upon the accused family may sometimes be a factor.<ref>
{{seealso|Effect of Criminal Records in Sentencing|Notice of Increased Penalty#Proving Prior Record|Jump, Step and Gap Principles‎}}
{{CanLIIRx|Schmitt|g65j1|2014 ABCA 105 (CanLII)}}{{TheCourtABCA}} (3:0)
</ref>


The impact on family cannot override other factors.<ref>
==Employment==
{{ibid1|Schmitt}}<br>
* [[Employment Status as a Factor of Sentencing]]
</ref>
 
{{reflist|2}}
 
==Effect on Immigration==
{{seealso|Immigration Consequences from a Conviction}}
Section 64 of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act states:
{{quotation1|
; No appeal for inadmissibility
64(1) No appeal may be made to the Immigration Appeal Division by a foreign national or their sponsor or by a permanent resident if the foreign national or permanent resident has been found to be inadmissible on grounds of security, violating human or international rights, serious criminality or organized criminality.
<br>
; Serious criminality
64(2) For the purpose of subsection (1), serious criminality must be with respect to a crime that was punished in Canada by a term of imprisonment of at least two years.
| [http://canlii.ca/t/7vwq#sec64 IRPA]
}}
 
; Risk of Deportation as Factor
The risk of deportation can be a factor to consider sentencing. <ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Pham|fwhz1|2013 SCC 15 (CanLII)|[2013] 1 SCR 739}}{{perSCC|Wagner J}} (7:0)<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Hamilton|1hmc9|2004 CanLII 5549 (ON CA)|72 OR (3d) 1}}{{perONCA|Doherty JA}} (3:0){{atsL|1hmc9|156|}}, {{atsL-np|1hmc9|159|}}, and {{atsL-np|1hmc9|186|}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Barkza|fn834|2011 ABCA 273 (CanLII)|530 WAC 333}}{{perABCA|Rowbotham JA}} (3:0)<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Dhura|flp0l|2011 ABCA 165 (CanLII)|505 AR 248}}{{perABCA|Watson JA}} (3:0)<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Koc|1x3vx|2008 NLTD 97 (CanLII)|[2008] NJ No 161 (N.L.S.C.T.D.)}}{{perNLSC|Goulding J}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Melo|hv14t|1975 CanLII 1299 (ON CA)|26 CCC (2d) 510}}{{perONCA-H|Arnup JA}}{{atp|516}} (Ont. C.A.)<br>
</ref>
It must be weighed and considered with all other factors and circumstances of the case.<ref>
{{CanLIIR-N|BRC|, [2010] OJ No 3571}} at 6<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Melo|hv14t|1975 CanLII 1299 (ON CA)|26 CCC (2d) 510}}{{perONCA-H|Arnup JA}} (3:0){{atp|516}}<Br>
{{supra1|Pham}}{{atsL|fwhz1|20| to 22}}<br>
</ref>
However, it should not bring the sentence out of the appropriate range.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Morgan|21xb5|2008 NWTCA 12 (CanLII)|239 CCC (3d) 187}}{{TheCourt}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Belenky|28w7c|2010 ABCA 98 (CanLII)|253 CCC (3d) 344}}{{perABCA|McDonald JA}} (3:0){{atL|28w7c|20}} ("the collateral consequence of deportation can be given at most very limited weight. It cannot by itself remove a sentence from what would otherwise be the appropriate range. At most it can serve to move the sentence a small amount, nothing more.") <br>
</ref>
However, the factor is a discretionary one.<ref>
{{supra1|Pham}}
</ref>
 
Immigration consequences are not aggravating or mitigating factors since they do not inform the gravity of the offence or responsibility of the offender. However, it is relevant to "individualization, parity, and rehabilitation".<ref>
{{supra1|Pham}}
</ref>
 
; Suggested Approach
The preferred approach is one where the sentencing judge must first determine a fit and proper sentence and only then consider immigration consequences.<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Lopez-Orellana|hq2nn|2018 ABCA 35 (CanLII)}}{{TheCourtABCA}} (3:0) {{atL|hq2nn|24}}
</ref>
 
The impact on the ability to get a VISA to places like the US may influence the court to consider an absolute discharge over a conditional discharge due to the treatment of probation to immigration.<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Dzabic|218bd|2008 CanLII 53860 (ONSC)}}{{perONSC|DiTomaso J}}</ref>
 
The effect of an offender's immigration status on the likelihood of day parole is not a factor in sentence.<ref>
{{CanLIIRx|Razmara|fpkgt|2012 ONCA 13 (CanLII)}}{{TheCourtONCA}} (3:0)</ref>
 
; Sentence Must Remain in the Appropriate Range
The risk of deportation is a "legitimate consideration for a sentencing judge" however "cannot be used to justify an otherwise unfit sentence" even where the offender has "virtually no connection" with the other country.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Spencer|gmbhn|2015 NSCA 108 (CanLII)|367 NSR (2d) 246}}{{perNSCA|MacDonald CJ}}{{atL|gmbhn|8}}<br>
{{supra1|Pham}}{{atL|fwhz1|16}} ("These consequences must not be allowed to dominate the exercise or skew the process either in favour of or against deportation.")
</ref>
The sentencing approach must not create a separate sentencing scheme for those at risk of deportation.<ref>
{{supra1|Pham}}{{atL|fwhz1|16}} ("Moreover, it must not lead to a separate sentencing scheme with a de facto if not a de jure special range of sentencing options where deportation is a risk.")
</ref>


A difference of one day custody in sentence will usually have "inconsequential" impact on denunciation, retribution, or deterrence, however, may still have "enormous" consequences on immigration status, in which case a reduction would be warranted.<ref>
==Medical Conditions and Substance Abuse==
{{CanLIIRP|Kanthasamy|1jxhw|2005 BCCA 135 (CanLII)|195 CCC (3d) 182}}{{perBCCA|Donald JA}} (3:0){{atL|1jxhw|15}}<br>
* [[Health and Substance Abuse as a Sentencing Factor]]
</ref>


; Children
==Collateral Consequences==
The judge may consider the impact of deportation on the offender's dependent children as mitigation.<ref>
* [[Collateral Consequences of Proceedings as a Sentencing Factor]]
{{CanLIIRx|Gaurino|h4qdv|2017 ONSC 4174 (CanLII)}}{{perONSC|Warkentin J}}<br>
{{CanLIIRx|Jiang|h387d|2017 BCPC 111 (CanLII)}}{{perBCPC|Rideout J}}<br>
{{CanLIIRx|Gomez|gx409|2017 BCPC 7 (CanLII)}}{{perBCPC|Rideout J}} <br>
</ref>
 
; Counsel's Failure to Raise Immigration Status
A failure of counsel to raise the issue of immigration effect can by grounds of appellate intervention.<ref>
{{supra1|Pham}}{{atL|fwhz1|24}}<br>
{{CanLIIRx|Tmenov|h433s|2017 ONCA 454 (CanLII)}}{{TheCourtONCA}} (3:0)<br>
{{CanLIIRP|Jamieson|fpf0n|2011 NSCA 122 (CanLII)|983 APR 392}}{{perNSCA|Saunders JA}}<br>
</ref>
 
{{reflist|2}}
 
=="Collateral Consequences" of Commission of the Offence==
 
Relevant collateral consequences include "any consequence arising from the commission of an offence, the conviction for an offence, or the sentence imposed for an offence, that impacts the offender."<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Suter|hsrlt|2018 SCC 34 (CanLII)|[2018] 2 SCR 496}}{{perSCC|Moldaver J}} (6:1){{atL|hsrlt|47}}<Br>
</ref>
 
They ''do not'' go to considerations of aggravating or mitigating factors, nor the gravity of the offence or moral blameworthiness of the offender.<Ref>
{{ibid1|Suter}}{{atL|hsrlt|48}} ("...collateral consequences are not necessarily "aggravating" or "mitigating" factors under s. 718.2(a) of the ''Criminal Code''...The question is not whether collateral consequences diminish the offender's moral blameworthiness or render the offence itself less serious...")
</ref>
 
The analysis of collateral consequences is upon "whether the effect of those consequences means that a particular sentence would have a more significant impact on the offender because of his or her circumstances".<Ref>
{{ibid1|Suter}}{{atL|hsrlt|48}}
</ref>
 
; Personal Circumstances of Offender
Collateral consequences upon the offender, including being victim of vigilante justice, forms part of the offender's personal circumstances and should be taken into account on sentencing.<ref>
{{supra1|Suter}}{{atsL|hsrlt|45| to 59}}<Br>
{{CanLIIRP|Pham|fwhz1|2013 SCC 15 (CanLII)|[2013] 1 SCR 739}}{{perSCC|Wagner J}}, {{atL|fwhz1|11}}
</ref>
They are relevant to sentencing as part of the considerations for individiualization and parity.<ref>
{{supra1|Suter}}{{atL|hsrlt|48}} ("The relevance of collateral consequences stems, in part, from the application of the sentencing principles of individualization and parity")
</ref>
 
; When It can be Mitigating
The consequence does not need to "emanate from state misconduct" for it to be mitigating.<ref>
{{supra1|Suter}}{{atL|hsrlt|56}}<br>
</ref>
 
After mitigating effects arising from collateral consequences are applied the sentence must still conform with the principle of proportionality.<ref>
{{supra1|Suter}}{{atL|hsrlt|56}}<br>
</ref>
 
; Stigma of the Offence
Stigma arising from the offence cannot be used as a mitigating factor when it is in line with what is expected from someone facing the same charges.<REf>
{{CanLIIR-S|HS|g6mkb|2014 ONCA 323 (CanLII)}}{{perONCA|Epstein JA}}
</ref>
 
{{reflist|2}}
 
===Victimization of Accused During Proceedings===
An incarcerated offender who is attacked by fellow inmates can be taken as a collateral factor.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Suter|hsrlt|2018 SCC 34 (CanLII)|[2018] 2 SCR 496}}{{perSCC|Moldaver J}} (6:1){{atL|hsrlt|51}}<br>
{{CanLIIRP|MacFarlane|fpvx8|2012 ONCA 82 (CanLII)|288 OAC 114}}{{TheCourtONCA}}{{atL|fpvx8|3}}<br>
</ref>
 
; Other Remedies
An accused who suffers harsh treatment while in remand, including being victimized, may have remedy under s. 24(1){{CCRF}}.<ref>
{{CanLIIRP|Summers|g6h8n|2014 SCC 26 (CanLII)|[2014] 1 SCR 575}}{{perSCC|Karakatsanis J}}{{atL|g6h8n|73}}("individuals who have suffered particularly harsh treatments, such as assaults in detention, can often look to other remedies, including under s 24(1) of the Charter")
</ref>
 
; Examples — Vigilante Justice
Judges must avoid giving "too much weight to vigilante violence" at sentencing or else risk giving undue legitimacy to it in the judicial process.<ref>
{{supra1|Suter}}{{atL|hsrlt|58}}<Br>
</ref>
Such violence should only be considered to a "limited extent".<ref>
{{supra1|Sutder}}{{atL|hsrlt|59}}<Br></ref>
 
{{reflist|2}}


==Aboriginal Background==
==Aboriginal Background==

Latest revision as of 14:40, 14 July 2024

This page was last substantively updated or reviewed January 2023. (Rev. # 95524)

General Principles

See also: Sentencing Factors Relating to the Offence and Sentencing Factors Relating to the Criminal Proceedings

Section 718.2(a) provides that "a sentence should be increased or reduced to account for any relevant aggravating or mitigating circumstances relating to the offence or the offender".

Distinctions between offender must be relevant to the degree of responsibility before they can be factored into sentencing.[1]

  1. ↑ R v Gerbrandt, 2021 ABCA 346 (CanLII), per curiam, at para 85
    R v Roberts, 2020 ABCA 434 (CanLII), Alta. L.R. (7th) 255, per curiam, at paras 42 to 47
    R v Ford, 2019 ABCA 87 (CanLII), 371 CCC (3d) 250, per curiam
    R v Costello, 2019 ABCA 104 (CanLII), [2019] AJ No 334, per curiam, at para 8
    R v Miller, 2018 ABCA 356 (CanLII), 2018] AJ No 1263, per curiam (2:1), at paras 13 to 17
    R v Fuller, 2017 ABCA 361 (CanLII), 60 Alta LR (6th) 219, per curiam, at para 7
    R v Maier, 2015 ABCA 59 (CanLII), 599 AR 44, per curiam (2:1), at para 31
    R v Murphy, 2014 ABCA 409 (CanLII), 317 CCC (3d) 314, per curiam
    R v Lausberg, 2013 ABCA 72 (CanLII), 544 AR 56, per McDonald J, at para 23
    R v Ayorech, 2012 ABCA 82 (CanLII), 522 AR 306, per curiam, at para 12
    R v Virani, 2012 ABCA 155 (CanLII), 545 WAC 328, per curiam, at para 16
    R v Ramsay, 2012 ABCA 257 (CanLII), 292 CCC (3d) 400, per curiam, at paras 15 to 34
    R v Resler, 2011 ABCA 167 (CanLII), 95 WCB (2d) 165, per curiam, at paras 8 to 10
    R v Belcourt, 2010 ABCA 319 (CanLII), 490 AR 224, per Slatter JA (2:1), at para 8
    R v B(TL), 2007 ABCA 61 (CanLII), 218 CCC (3d) 11, per Fraser CJ, at para 25
    R v Gibbon, 2007 ABCA 300 (CanLII), 417 AR 37, per Costigan JA, at para 12
    R v Diebel, 2007 ABCA 418 (CanLII), per curiam, at paras 16 to 23


Age and Youthfulness

Age is relevant to sentencing as a mitigating factor. A youthful person is seen as having a greater chance of reforming and maturing over time. The courts in certain cases recognize young adults as sometimes foolish, inexperienced, irresponsible, immature and have a "greater prospects for rehabilitation". This diminishes their level of responsibility and moral blameworthiness.[1]

Likewise, the principle of restraint is a prominent factor for young offenders.[2]

Youthfulness as a factor is of primary importance for first time offenders.[3] The factor becomes less important when the youthful offender has "considerable amount of experience in the criminal justice system, has been subject to various forms of probationary and correctional supervision, and has not only breached those conditions but has also re-offended."[4]

Where not otherwise required, a judge sentencing of a youthful offender should put more weight on rehabilitation over general deterrence.[5]

The objectives for youthful first offenders should primarily be on rehabilitation and specific deterrence.[6]

The "length of a penitentiary sentence for a youthful offender should rarely be determined solely by the objectives of denunciation and general deterrence."[7]

For an older accused, age can factor against rehabilitation and reform.[8]

At a certain age there is a recognized category of offender for which imprisonment would be considered "pointless or an unreasonable burden."[9] However, some cases have also pointed to advanced age being an inappropriate reason for sentence reduction as it should be dealt with during sentence administration.[10]

Maturity of Adults

The naivete and immaturity are valid mitigating factors affecting culpability.[11]

Advanced Age Offenders

An offender of advanced age can "in some circumstances" be considered a mitigating feature.[12] This has been justified on the basis that prison time is tougher on older persons and that they will have less life expectancy after release.[13]

  1. ↑ eg see R v Kunzig, 2011 MBPC 81 (CanLII), per MJ Smith J, at para 54
    R v Scott, 2015 ABCA 99 (CanLII), 599 AR 182, per curiam (3:0), at para 13
    R v Jackson, 2002 CanLII 41524 (ON CA), 163 CCC (3d) 451, per Sharpe JA (3:0)
  2. ↑ See: R v Demeter and Whitmore, 1976 CanLII 1413 (ON CA), 32 CCC (2d) 379, per Dubin JA
  3. ↑ Demeter and Whitmore, ibid.
    R v Ijam, 2007 ONCA 597 (CanLII), 226 CCC (3d) 376, per MacPherson JA, at paras 55 to 56, 87 OR (3d) 81
    R v Hussey, 1990 CanLII 6491 (NL CA), , 83 Nfld & PEIR 161 (Nfld CA), per Gushue JA (3:0)
    Scott, supra, at para 13
  4. ↑ Scott, supra, at para 13
    R v Quesnel, 1984 CanLII 3475 (ON CA), 14 CCC (3d) 254, per Thorson JA, at p. 255 (CCC)
  5. ↑ R v Turner, 1970 CanLII 522 (ON CA), 1 CCC (2d) 293 (ONCA), per Haines J
  6. ↑ R v Priest, 1996 CanLII 1381 (ON CA), [1996] OJ No 3369 (CA), per Rosenberg JA (3:0)
    R v Nassri, 2015 ONCA 316 (CanLII), 125 OR (3d) 578, per Sharpe JA (3:0), at para 30
  7. ↑ R v Borde, 2003 CanLII 4187 (ON CA), 63 OR (3d) 417, per Rosenberg JA (3:0), at para 36
  8. ↑ e.g. R v Wiens, 2013 ABPC 15 (CanLII), 551 AR 195, per Pharo J, at para 32
  9. ↑ R v Cromwell, 2006 ABCA 365 (CanLII), 214 CCC (3d) 502, per O’Brien JA, at para 16
    R v Nezic, [1976] BCJ No 1154 (CA)(*no CanLII links) - 77 year old offender in poor health
    see also R v Schmitt, 2014 ABCA 105 (CanLII), per curiam (3:0)
  10. ↑ e.g. R v Bulleyment, 1979 CanLII 2922 (ON CA), 46 CCC (2d) 429, per Martin JA
    R v Odgers, 2006 ABPC 163 (CanLII), 400 AR 322, per JDB McDonald J, at para 29
  11. ↑ R v McLean, 2016 SKCA 93 (CanLII), 132 WCB (2d) 96, per Ottenbreit JA
    see also R v Vandenbosch, 2007 MBCA 113 (CanLII), per Chartier JA, at para 95
  12. ↑ R v Walker, 2016 ABQB 695 (CanLII), per Ackerl J, at para 74
  13. ↑ Walker, ibid., at para 74
    R v AR, 1994 CanLII 4524 (MB CA), [1994] MJ No 89, 92 Man R (2d) 183 (CA), per Twaddle JA

Degree of Remorse and Attitude

Remorse is a mitigating factor.[1] Remorse is demonstrated by the acceptance of responsibility through word or action as well as demonstrated insight into the offender's actions. A lack of remorse, however, does not make for an aggravating factor, but simply does not allow for the mitigating effect of remorse.[2]

The courts should have "restraint...for persons who spontaneously acknowledge their culpability, have genuine remorse and seek voluntarily to make reparations."[3]

A lack of remorse or acceptance of responsibility generally cannot be taken as an aggravating factor, but rather can only be taken as an absence of mitigating factors.[4] Only in exceptional circumstances can the lack of remorse be taken as aggravating.[5]

Remorse is a "one-way street" and can only have the effect of providing reduction to sentence.[6]

An offender who "continues to maintain his innocence" cannot be found by that fact alone to lack "remorse or insight."[7]

Strong Case

Remorse has little importance when the case is so strong that "guilt is inevitable."[8]

Misconduct Negating Remorse

Where there is misconduct on the part of the accused during the course of proceedings, it will be "much more difficult to perceive the existence of remorse."[9]

Mistake of Law

While not strictly a defence at trial, a mistake of law can be mitigating for sentence. Where the accused honestly but mistakenly believe in the lawfulness of their actions they are therefore less morally blameworthy.[10]

  1. ↑ R v Anderson, 1992 CanLII 6002 (BC C.A.), 74 CCC (3d) 523, per Southin JA and Taylor JA, at pp. 535-536, 16 BCAC 14
    R v Nash, 2009 NBCA 7 (CanLII), 240 CCC (3d) 421, per Robertson JA (3:0), at para 40
    R v Cormier, 1999 CanLII 13118 (NB CA), 140 CCC (3d) 87, per Larlee JA
  2. ↑ See R v Kakekagamick, 2006 CanLII 28549 (ON CA), [2006] 81 OR (3d) 664, 211 CCC (3d) 289, per Laforme JA (3:0), at para 73 ("[his] failure to accept responsibility for his actions weighs against affording him significant consideration by way of mitigation")
    R v Wowk, 2020 ABCA 119 (CanLII), per curiam, at para 23
    R v Valentini, 1999 CanLII 1885 (ON CA), 132 CCC (3d) 262, 43 OR (3d) 178, at paras 82 to 83
    See also R v Kozy, 1990 CanLII 2625 (ON CA), 58 CCC (3d) 500, per Carthy JA (3:0), at pp. 505-506
    R v Anderson, 1992 CanLII 6002 , per Southin JA, at pp. 535-536
    R v Brown, [1993] OJ No 624 (CA)(*no CanLII links)
    R v Valentini, 1999 CanLII 1885 (ON CA), 132 CCC (3d) 262, per Rosenberg JA (3:0), at paras 80 to 85
  3. ↑ R v Arcand, 2010 ABCA 363 (CanLII), 264 CCC (3d) 134, per curiam, at para 293
  4. ↑ R v Proulx, 2000 SCC 5 (CanLII), [2000] 1 SCR 61, per Lamer CJ
    R v KA, 1999 CanLII 3756 (ON CA), [1999] OJ No 2640, per Rosenberg JA, at para 49
    R v Reid, 2017 ONCA 430 (CanLII), [2017] OJ No 2758, per van Rensburg JA, at para 36
    R v Cormier, 1999 CanLII 13118 (NB CA), 140 CCC (3d) 87, per Larlee JA
    R v S(E), 1997 CanLII 11513 (NB CA), 191 NBR (2d) 3 (CA), per Ryan JA, at para 6
    R v Williams, 2007 CanLII 13949 (ONSC), [2007] OJ No 1604, per Hill J, at para 32
    R v Hawkins, 2011 NSCA 7 (CanLII), 265 CCC (3d) 513, per Beveridge JA, at paras 31 to 34
    see also: R v Henry, 2002 NSCA 33 (CanLII), 164 CCC (3d) 167, per Roscoe JA, at para 21
    R v Zeek, 2004 BCCA 42 (CanLII), 193 BCAC 104, per Rowles JA
  5. ↑ Hawkins, supra, at para 33
    Valentini, supra
  6. ↑ Hawkins, supra
  7. ↑ R v Yau, 2011 ONSC 1009 (CanLII), OJ No 720, per MacDonnell J, at para 27
    see, e.g. R v Valentini, 1999 CanLII 1885 (ON CA), 132 CCC (3d) 262, per Rosenberg JA
    R v Giroux, 2006 CanLII 10736 (ON CA), 207 CCC (3d) 512, per Blair JA
    R v B(C), 2008 ONCA 486 (CanLII), 78 WCB (2d) 80, per Gillese JA (3:0)
  8. ↑ R v Singh, 2018 ONSC 3850 (CanLII), per Harris J
    R v Faulds, 1994 CanLII 770 (ON CA), , 20 OR (3d) 13, per curiam, at para 14
    R v Daya, 2007 ONCA 693 (CanLII), 227 CCC (3d) 367, per Moldaver and LaForme JJA, at para 15
  9. ↑ R v Sawchyn, 1981 ABCA 173 (CanLII), 124 DLR (3d) 600, per Laycraft JA, at para 34
    R v Nyoni, 2017 BCCA 360 (CanLII), per Newbury JA, at para 8
  10. ↑ R v Suter, 2018 SCC 34 (CanLII), [2018] 2 SCR 496, at para 64 ("This is because offenders who honestly but mistakenly believe in the lawfulness of their actions are less morally blameworthy than offenders who — in committing the same offence — are unsure about the lawfulness of their actions, or know that their actions are unlawful.")

Shame and Embarrassment

The resultant shame and scorn suffered by an offender as a result of the offence should generally not warrant a lighter sentence.[1]

When it comes to offences committed in the course of professional work, there should be little impact on sentence as the offender had "consciously chosen [to commit the offence while] they enjoyed a good reputation and a position of trust and status, which they abused to commit their crimes."[2]

  1. ↑ R v Marchessault, [1984] J.Q. No 686 (QCCA)(*no CanLII links)
    R v Morency, 2012 QCCQ 4556 (CanLII), per Morand J, at para 85
  2. ↑ Morency, supra, at para 86
    Quintin Vézina v R, 2010 QCCA 1457 (CanLII), per curiam
    R v Jeannotte, 2005 CanLII 22771 (QC CQ), [2005] R.J.Q. 2425, per Provost J
    R v Flahiff, 1999 CanLII 10716 (QC CQ), [1999] R.J.Q. 884, per Boisvert J
    R v Harris, [1984] J.Q. No 102 (C.S.P.)(*no CanLII links)

Repayment and Restitution

Where there has been "full restitution" made in a property offence, this might be a "special circumstance" justifying a conditional sentence where a jail sentence was otherwise appropriate.[1]

It should still take "secondary role" to denunciation and deterrence in large scale frauds involving breach of trust.[2]

  1. ↑ R v Bogart, 2002 CanLII 41073 (ON CA), 61 OR (3d) 75, per Laskin JA ( “[r]ecognized that the payment of full restitution before sentencing ‘might’ be a ‘special’ circumstance justifying a conditional sentence where a prison sentence is otherwise appropriate.” )
  2. ↑ R v Mathur, 2017 ONCA 403 (CanLII), per Trotter JA

Character

A mitigating factor that may be considered is whether the offence is "out of character."[1]

"Stressors" that "precipitated" the offence rendering the offence "out of character" will have a mitigating effect.[2]

There is some criticism of the mitigating effect of character. All persons are obligated to "obey the law" and should not be used as "credit against punishment" for the commission of an offence.[3] It is also considered an "unprincipled" use of "personal history" evidence.[4]

Letters from members of the community and family of the offender can be put into evidence at sentencing. However, the weight may be limited where there is no indication that the writers knew about the circumstances of the offence or prior record.[5]

  1. ↑ R v Shrivastava, 2019 ABQB 663 (CanLII), per Antonio J, at paras 72 to 93
    R v Misay, 2021 ABQB 485 (CanLII), at para 127
  2. ↑ R v McIntosh, 2012 ONCJ 216 (CanLII), OJ No 1772, per Hearn J, at para 38
  3. ↑ Misay, supra, at para 128 ("Justice Antonio also pointed out that obeying the law, an obligation we all bear, cannot be taken to earn credit against punishment for commission of a serious offence")
    Shrivastava, supra, at para 78
  4. ↑ Misay, supra, at para 127
  5. ↑ e.g. R v Malt, 2016 BCPC 322 (CanLII), per Harris J, at para 10

Risk to Re-Offend

The risk that the accused poses to re-offend is a valid factor for sentencing.[1]

A greater the risk to re-offend the more consideration there will be upon a custodial sentence.[2]

In sexual abuse against children, the fact that an accused is unlikely to re-offend is not a significant consideration. The emphasis should be on general deterrence and denunciation.[3]

  1. ↑ e.g. R v Patton, 2011 ABCA 199 (CanLII), 505 AR 394, per curiam, at para 10
  2. ↑ R v Carelse, 2013 SKQB 15 (CanLII), 411 Sask R 263, per Danyliuk J, at paras 28 to 30
  3. ↑ R v SCW, 2019 BCCA 405 (CanLII), per Goepel JA, at para 26 (" should further note that even if it could be said that the judge erred in not giving weight to the opinion, it would likely have had no impact on the sentence. The fact that an accused is unlikely to re‑offend is not a significant consideration in a case concerning sexual abuse against children when the emphasis is properly based on matters of general deterrence and denunciation")

Post Offence Conduct

Efforts at rehabilitation and career advancement post-offence is a mitigating factor.[1]

Rehabilitation, while the accused has fled to avoid sentencing, is not a mitigating factor.[2]

Post-offence bad behaviour is generally not an aggravating factor.[3] Criminal offences committed after the offence will not be aggravating.[4] However, efforts in attempting to frustrate the investigation, such as telling a victim not to report the offence or attempting to commit further offences, can be used as aggravating.[5]

Failure to Assist in the Investigation

Where an accused fails or refuses to assist police in an investigation it can at best neutralize mitigating factors. It cannot be an aggravating factor.[6]

Correctional Records

The disciplinary records of a remanded accused should not generally be used as aggravating to the sentence.[7] But they can be used to rebut assertions of good character as a mitigating factor.[8]

  1. ↑ R v Thompson, 1989 ABCA 212 (CanLII), 98 AR 348, per Côté JA, at para 4
    R v Spina, 1997 ABCA 235 (CanLII), (1997), 200 AR 133, per Conrad JA, at para 18
  2. ↑ Thompson, supra
  3. ↑ R v Klok, 2014 ABPC 102 (CanLII), per Allen J, at paras 79 to 88
    R v S(B), 1994 CanLII 3881 (SK CA), 125 Sask R 303(Sask CA), per curiam, at para 47
  4. ↑ Klok, supra
  5. ↑ Klok, supra, at paras 87 to 88
  6. ↑ R v Gryba, 2016 SKQB 123 (CanLII), SJ No 218, per Popescul CJ, at para 35
    R v Leroux, 2015 SKCA 48 (CanLII), 9 WWR 709, per Caldwell JA, at para 62
    R v Araya, 2015 ONCA 854 (CanLII), 344 OAC 36, per Laskin JA, at para 29
    R v Gwyn, 2009 ABPC 212 (CanLII), per Fradsham J, at para 16
    R v Deren, 2017 ABCA 23 (CanLII), per Rowbotham JA, at para 5
  7. ↑ R v Clarke-McNeil, 2022 NSSC 63 (CanLII), per Campbell J
  8. ↑ Clarke-McNeil, ibid.

Offender's History of Trauma

The presence of relevant abuse in the offender's history is sometimes found to be mitigating. This is particularly notable in child sexual offences where the offender had a history of abuse upon themselves.[1]

Abuse by Victim

The presence of long-term abuse by the victim can be mitigating.[2]

This may be manifested as "battered woman syndrome".[3]

There can be mitigation where the conduct was "impulsive" or an immediate reaction in response to a perceived (or real) wrong by the victim.[4]

  1. ↑ R v DKDB, 2013 BCSC 2321 (CanLII), per Ballance J, at paras 13, 54
    R v BVT, 2016 BCPC 95 (CanLII), per Brecknell J
  2. ↑ R v Dunlap, 1991 CanLII 2519 (NS CA), 101 N.S.R. (2d) 263, per Matthews JA
    R v Drake, [1995] O.J. No. 4375 (Gen. Div.)(*no CanLII links) online: Quicklaw (OJ)
    R v Cormier, 1974 CanLII 1577 (NS CA), 9 NSR (2d) 687, 22 CCC (2d) 235, per Macdonald JA
  3. ↑ R. v. Phillips, [1992] O.J. No. 2716 (Gen. Div.)
    R. v. Bennett, [1993] O.J. No. 1011 (Prov. Div.)
  4. ↑ R v Kipling, 1992 CanLII 13189 (MB CA), 83 Man. R. (2d) 6, per Scott CJ
    R v McLeod (L.S.), 1994 NSCA 151 (CanLII), 132 NSR (2d) 118, per Freeman JA
    R v Whynot, 1996 NSCA 53 (CanLII), 147 NSR (2d) 111, per Pugsley JA

Cultural Background

It has been observed that the purposes and principles of sentencing are "sufficiently broad and flexible to enable a sentencing court in appropriate cases to consider both the systemic and background factors that may have played a role in the commission of the offence and the values of the community from which the offender comes."[1]

There mere existence of cultural or customary differences between the accused's culture and Canadian norms cannot be used as an excuse or as mitigation.[2] To do otherwise creates a problem that new immigrants will not recieve "true protection" of the law.[3]

A lack of facility with English has been treated as mitigating in certain circumstances.[4]

  1. ↑ R v Borde, 2003 CanLII 4187 (ON CA), 172 CCC (3d) 225, per Rosenberg JA
    R v Rage, 2018 ONCA 211 (CanLII), per curiam (3:0), at para 13
  2. ↑ R v E(H), 2015 ONCA 531 (CanLII), 336 OAC 363, per Benotto JA, at para 33
    R v Brown, 1992 CanLII 2829 (AB CA), 73 CCC (3d) 242, per curiam re offences of violence or sexual violence
  3. ↑ R v Teclesenbet, 2009 ABCA 389 (CanLII), 469 AR 193, per McDonald JA, at para 9
  4. ↑ R v Huang, [2005] OJ No 1855 (SCJ)(*no CanLII links) , at para 21
    R v Shaliwal, [2011] MJ No 213(Q.B.)(*no CanLII links) , at para 41
    R v Lim, [1990] OJ No 949 (H.C.J.)(*no CanLII links) , per Doherty J
    R v JWS, 2013 NSPC 7 (CanLII), per Derrick J, at para 41

Sympathy and Compassion

The court may allow for a degree of leniency for sympathetic or compassionate offenders.[1] This will occasionally be done where the accused can show that his "health is so precarious" that the offender may not survive if they are incarcerated. [2] However, simply poor health or age is not usually a reason on its own.[3]

In some cases, sympathy for family members of the accused may be relevant. But it should not "override all other of the considerations for sentencing."[4]

  1. ↑ R v Voutsis, 1989 CanLII 4477 (SK CA), 47 CCC 451 (Sask. CA), per Cameron JA
  2. ↑ R v Michel, 1996 CanLII 8363 (BCCA), 133 WAC 237 (BCCA), per Proudfoot JA
  3. ↑ R v Shah, 1994 CanLII 1290 (1994), 94 CCC 45, per Finch JA (2:1)
    R v Maczynski, 1997 CanLII 2491 (BCCA), 120 CCC 221, per Lambert JA
    R v FDM (1995), 29 WBC 148 (AltaCA)(*no CanLII links)
  4. ↑ R v Schmitt, 2014 ABCA 105 (CanLII), per curiam (3:0), at para 11

Criminal Record

See also: Effect of Criminal Records in Sentencing, Notice of Increased Penalty#Proving Prior Record, and Jump, Step and Gap Principles‎

Employment

Medical Conditions and Substance Abuse

Collateral Consequences

Aboriginal Background

See Aboriginal Sentencing Principles and Factors

During Proceedings

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