Consent in Sexual Offences

This page was last substantively updated or reviewed August 2021. (Rev. # 96565)

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• < Defences

General Principles

The element of consent "is generally the most important issue with regard to sexual assault."

Consent is a matter of the "actual state of mind of the complainant." Belief in consent is a matter of the state of mind of the accused.

Consent applies to both the actus reus and mens rea of the offence. The actus reus concerns whether "the complainant was subjectively consenting in her mind" and the mens rea concerns whether "accused believed that the complainant communicated consent."

The absence of consent must be determined on a subjective basis of the complainant "by reference to the complainant's subjective internal state of mind towards the touching, at the time it occurred."

There is no obligation that the complainant "express her lack of consent or her revocation of consent" before the actus reus can be made out.

If the trial judge believes the complainant subjectively did not consent, the Crown has proved the absence of consent. The accused’s view of the complainant’s conduct is not relevant to whether the actus reus has been established.

Implied Consent

There must be actual consent. It is not a defence to sexual assault to suggest implied consent.

Implied consent cannot rest on the assumption that there is consent if the woman fails to protest or resist.

Timing of Consent

Consent must coincide with the sexual activity and can be withdrawn at any time.

Proof of Lack of Consent

The proof of lack of consent requires that the accused "knew that the complainant was not consenting to the sexual act in question, or was reckless or wilfully blind to the absence of consent.."

In certain cases, the accused may raise a defence of honest but mistaken belief in consent.

Statutory Requirements

In relation to offences of sexual assault, sexual assault causing bodily harm (or with a weapon), or aggravated assault, consensual sexual activity must be consensual within the meaning of s. 273.1(1) of the Code. Section 273.1 states:

Meaning of “consent”

273.1 (1) Subject to subsection (2) [no consent obtained – sexual assault] and subsection 265(3) [where consent is deemed unavailable in common assault], “consent” means, for the purposes of sections 271 [sexual assault], 272 [sexual assault with a weapon or causing bodily harm] and 273 [aggravated sexual assault], the voluntary agreement of the complainant to engage in the sexual activity in question.

Consent

(1.1) Consent must be present at the time the sexual activity in question takes place.

Question of law

(1.2) The question of whether no consent is obtained under subsection 265(3) [where consent is deemed unavailable in common assault] or subsection (2) [no consent obtained – sexual assault] or (3) is a question of law.

Where no consent obtained

(2) For the purpose of subsection (1) [no consent obtained – sexual assault], no consent is obtained if

(a) the agreement is expressed by the words or conduct of a person other than the complainant;

(a.‍1) the complainant is unconscious;

(b) the complainant is incapable of consenting to the activity for any reason other than the one referred to in paragraph (a.‍1);

(c) the accused induces the complainant to engage in the activity by abusing a position of trust, power or authority;

(d) the complainant expresses, by words or conduct, a lack of agreement to engage in the activity; or

(e) the complainant, having consented to engage in sexual activity, expresses, by words or conduct, a lack of agreement to continue to engage in the activity.

Subsection (2) not limiting

(3) Nothing in subsection (2) [no consent obtained – sexual assault] shall be construed as limiting the circumstances in which no consent is obtained.
1992, c. 38, s. 1; 2018, c. 29, s. 19.

[annotation(s) added]

– CCC (CanLII), (DOJ)

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Where belief in consent not a defence

273.2 It is not a defence to a charge under section 271 [sexual assault], 272 [sexual assault with a weapon or causing bodily harm] or 273 [aggravated sexual assault] that the accused believed that the complainant consented to the activity that forms the subject-matter of the charge, where

(a) the accused’s belief arose from

(i) the accused’s self-induced intoxication,

(ii) the accused’s recklessness or wilful blindness, or

(iii) any circumstance referred to in subsection 265(3) [where consent is deemed unavailable in common assault] or 273.1(2) [no consent obtained – sexual assault] or (3) in which no consent is obtained;

(b) the accused did not take reasonable steps, in the circumstances known to the accused at the time, to ascertain that the complainant was consenting; or

(c) there is no evidence that the complainant’s voluntary agreement to the activity was affirmatively expressed by words or actively expressed by conduct.

1992, c. 38, s. 1; 2018, c. 29, s. 20.

– CCC (CanLII), (DOJ)

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Analysis of consent for sexual offences requires a two-step process:

1. determine whether there is evidence establishing there was no "voluntary agreement of the complainant to engage in the sexual activity in question" (s. 273.1(1))
2. if there was consent (or a reasonable doubt of a lack of consent), then "consider whether there are any circumstances that may vitiate her apparent consent".

Once there is a "no" there is sufficient notice to the accused that there is a problem with consent. This obliges the accused to obtain a clear and unequivocal yes before there is any further sexual activity. The rule equally applies to an obvious statement such as "stop." A more modern approach requires that "[n]othing less than positive affirmation" will amount to consent.

First Step

The first step "requires proof that the complainant did not voluntarily agree to the touching, its sexual nature, or the identity of the partner." Other conditions or qualities of the act, such as whether effective birth control was being used or the existence of a sexually transmitted disease are not relevant at this stage. The "sexual activity in question" refers to the specific physical act, whether it be kissing, petting, oral sex, intercourse, or the use of sex toys. This will be as precise as the form of penetration or the part of the body to be touched. The sexual nature of the offence should distinguish from other forms of non-sexual activity such as medical examinations. The identity of the sexual partner refers to "a specific individual known personally to her". Where the complainant is mistaken then there can be no consent on this first stage.

In this first step the Crown must prove the absence of a subjective voluntary agreement to the sexual act in question. The absence of consent, as an element of the offence, is "judged subjectively from the complainant's point of view."

Position of Trust

Section 273.1(2)(c) does not require coercion. It is applicable where the “use of personal feelings and confidence engendered by that relations to secure an apparent consent to sexual activity”.

Sexual Activity in Question

Consent in sexual assault set out in s. 273.1 requires "voluntary agreement" between the persons to "the sexual activity in question". This is meaning is restricted to the complainant's subjective agreement to the "touching and its sexual nature." The "sexual activity in question" refers to the "physical sex act itself (for example, kissing, petting, oral sex, intercourse, or the use of sex toys)."

Statutory Exceptions To Consent

Section 265(3) deems an absence of consent despite evidence of consent in certain circumstances consisting of:

• application of force to complainant or another (s. 265(3)(a))
• threats or fear of force to the complainant or another (s. 265(3)(b))
• fraud (s. 265(3)(c))
• exercise of authority (s. 265(3)(d))

The circumstances set own s. 265(3) identify "situations in which it complainant's apparent consent is not effective because it is not a true reflection of the exercise of the complainant's free will."

Statutory Exemption Under s. 273.1(2)

Section 273.1(2) is a non-exhaustive list of circumstances in which no consent is obtained. While s. 273.1(3) provides a manner in which courts may consider other circumstances.

Purposes

The purpose of the provision under s. 273.1(2)(c) is “[t]he protection of the vulnerable and the weak and the preservation of the right to freely choose to consent to sexual activity”.

Meaning of "Consent"

"Consent" in s. 273.1 refers to "consent as the conscious agreement of the complainant to engage in every sexual act in a particular encounter." Consent requires "a conscious, operating mind, capable of granting, revoking or withholding consent to each and every sexual act."

All non-verbal behaviours that are being relied upon as "expressions of consent" must be "unequivocal."

Consent Expected in Sexual Encounters

A sexual encounter between two strangers requires "as a matter of logic and common sense ... clear and unambiguous communication of consent." Depending on the circumstances, context of the prior relationship "may, in certain circumstances, impliedly provide scope for the perception of the existence of consent."

Capacity to Consent

Section 273.1(2)(b) deems there to be no consent where "the complainant is incapable of consenting to the activity."

Consent in this context means the "conscious agreement of the complainant to engage in every sexual act in the particular encounter."

Capacity is as necessary precondition to consent.

A complainant who is (a) unable to say "no" or (b) believes they have no choice in the matter, is not capable of forming subjective consent.

Burden of Proof

The Crown has to prove beyond a reasonable doubt either the absence of a capacity to consent or the absence of consent as a fact.

Standard of Proof

The existence of "subjective consent requires that the complainant subjectively agree to:

1. the act;
2. its "sexual nature";
3. the "specific identity of their partner; and
4. the existence of a choice to refuse to participate in the sexual act.

The proof beyond a reasonable doubt of absence of any one of these elements will render the complainant unable to consent to the sexual activity.

Incapacity is established where the evidence is shown that the complainant is "incapable of understanding the sexual nature of the act" or was "not able to appreciate that they may choose to decline to decline to participate in the activity."

Effect of Incapacity

If incapacity is established, the Crown does not need to prove the absence of any prior consent.

Lack of Memory of the Event

The alleged victim's loss of memory of the event "is direct evidence of nothing except the fact that the witness cannot testify as to what happened during a particular period." It can also permit, in combination with other evidence, the inference that alleged victim did not or was not capable of consenting. While not strictly necessary, "expert evidence will almost always be essential" is such a case.

A complainant with no memory can testify to their "pre-existing attitudes and assumptions" that they would not have consented to sexual activity at any time. That evidence can be used to make the inference that the complainant subjectively did not consent.

Broad Advanced Consent

It is impermissible for a judge to apply a "broad advanced consent" to find that the complainant agreed to figure sexual activity with an "undefined scope."

For consent to be valid it must be:

• "linked to the sexual activity in question";

1. "must exist at the time the activity occurs"; and

• "it can be withdrawn at any time".

Unconsciousness

An unconscious person cannot provide consent in advance. Such a person is "incapable of consciously evaluating whether she is consenting is therefore not consensual". Consent requires an ongoing conscious consent throughout the sexual activity.

If a victim is unconscious then the crown may prove lack of consent by circumstantial evidence. While not required, for such evidence to be probative, some expert evidence is often necessary.

As for capacity to consent, courts can infer a lack of capacity where there is direct evidence that:

1. the complainant was extremely intoxicated;
2. the complainant was asleep or unconscious when the sexual touching commenced; or
3. the complainant was asleep or unconscious during all of the sexual touching (BSB, supra, at para 45).

Intoxication

The capacity to consent requires more than simply the “baseline physical functions”.

It is not so low as to render "relatively primitive actions such as walking a short distance, or unassisted vomiting" as being signs of capacity to consent.

Drunkeness is not the same as incapacity. Poor decision making, memory loss, or loss of inhibition or self-control due to alcohol does not negate consent. An intoxicated complainant may still have the ability to consent.

Where alcohol may have vitiated consent, it may be best established by way of expert evidence. But it is not necessary as a matter of law.

Consent may be vitiated by abusing a position of trust, power or authority.

Threats or abuse that occur after the event cannot go towards vitiation of consent.

The judge may not make a finding that consent was "not possible" on the sole basis that the complainant was "drinking heavily."

Abuse of Position of Trust (s. 265(3)(d) and 273.1(3)(c))

The term "exercise of authority" under s. 265(3)(d) is intended to capture relationships in which one party has "the power to influence the conduct and actions" of others. However, influence "is a question of degree" whereby at some point "influence becomes coercion and a parent consent is nothing more than submission". it is when it becomes coercion that section 265(3)(d) is engaged.

The accused will be in a position of authority when he "can coerce the complainant into consent by virtue of their relationship." Such a relationship does not necessarily mean that lawful consent is impossible. Rather the Crown must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the sexual activity was obtained by "the exercise of that coercive authority over the complainant."

Section 273.1(3)(c) states "For the purpose of subsection (1), no consent is obtained if ...(c) the accused induces the complainant to engage in the activity by abusing a position of trust, power or authority;"

The determination of whether the coercive exercise of authority vitiates consent requires considerations of elements including:

• the nature of the relationship
• the specific circumstances surrounding the apparent consent
• any other issues relevant to the assessment the nature of the relationship

The type of coercion suggested in s. 265(3) is not the same as that found in s. 273.1(2).

Coercion under s. 265(3) addresses "consent obtained where the complainant submits or does not resist by reason" of the exercise of authority.

Coercion under s. 273.1(2) include the use of "personal feelings and confidence engendered by that relationship to secure an apparent consent."

Such positions of authority can include doctor-patient relationships or student-teacher relationships.

Fraud

In a sexual assault context, fraud will vitiate consent where an "objectively dishonest act" (i.e. falsehoods or failure to disclose) has "the effect of exposing the person consenting to a significant risk of serious bodily harm." To be dishonest, the acts must be those that "a reasonable person would find them to be dishonest."

Trivial harm or mere risk of harm is not sufficient to vitiate an otherwise consensual act. Thus, "careful use of a condom might reduce risk" to a point that consent is not vitiated.

The failure of the accused to disclose that they are HIV positive before sex can vitiate any consent for sex that the victim gave.

Where "deception causes a misunderstanding as to the nature of the act itself there is no legally recognized consent because what happened is not that for which consent was given"Consent that is not based on a knowledge of the significant relevant factors in not valid.

Honest but Mistaken Belief in Consent

• Honest But Mistaken Belief in Consent

Capacity for Consent for Under 16 Years of Age

• Age of Consent in Sexual Offences (s. 150.1)

See Also

• Mistaken Belief of Age
• R v Brown [1993] UKHL 19