Jury Instructions: Difference between revisions

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{{HeaderJuries}}
{{HeaderJuries}}
==General Principles==
==General Principles==
<!-- -->
The purpose of a jury charge is to "educate the decision-maker so that it will make an informed decision, not to tell the decision-make what decision to make".<Ref>
The purpose of a jury charge is to "educate the decision-maker so that it will make an informed decision, not to tell the decision-make what decision to make".<Ref>
R v Bradley, [http://canlii.ca/t/glw8d 2015 ONCA 738] (CanLII){{perONCA| JA}}per Watt J. At para 184<Br>
R v Bradley, [http://canlii.ca/t/glw8d 2015 ONCA 738] (CanLII){{perONCA|Watt JA}} at para 184<Br>
</ref>
</ref>


An accused person is "entitled to a properly, not perfectly, instructed jury".<ref>
An accused person is "entitled to a properly, not perfectly, instructed jury".<ref>
R v P.J.B., [http://canlii.ca/t/ftj2j 2012 ONCA 730] (CanLII){{perONCA| JA}} at para 41<br>
R v PJB, [http://canlii.ca/t/ftj2j 2012 ONCA 730] (CanLII){{perONCA| JA}} at para 41<br>
R v Jacquard, [http://canlii.ca/t/1fr4h 1997 CanLII 374] (SCC), [1997] 1 SCR 314{{perSCC| J}}, at paras 1 to 2, 62<br>
R v Jacquard, [http://canlii.ca/t/1fr4h 1997 CanLII 374] (SCC), [1997] 1 SCR 314{{perSCC| J}}, at paras 1 to 2, 62<br>
</ref>
</ref>
Line 53: Line 52:


The instructing judge is responsible for "review of the evidence and ... to relate the evidence to the position of the defence"<ref>
The instructing judge is responsible for "review of the evidence and ... to relate the evidence to the position of the defence"<ref>
Melvin at 31<br>
Melvin{{supra}} at 31<br>
PJB at para 43
PJB at para 43
</ref>
</ref>
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'''Elements of Clarity'''<Br>
'''Elements of Clarity'''<Br>
The instructions must give the jury a clear understanding of:<ref>R v P.J.B., [http://canlii.ca/t/ftj2j 2012 ONCA 730] (CanLII) at para 42 citing R v MacKinnon, [http://canlii.ca/t/1f971 1999 CanLII 1723] (ONCA) at para 27<br>
The instructions must give the jury a clear understanding of:<ref>R v P.J.B., [http://canlii.ca/t/ftj2j 2012 ONCA 730] (CanLII){{perONCA| JA}} at para 42 citing R v MacKinnon, [http://canlii.ca/t/1f971 1999 CanLII 1723] (ONCA){{perONCA| JA}} at para 27<br>
R v Nadarajah, [http://canlii.ca/t/22dzm 2009 ONCA 118] (CanLII){{perONCA| JA}} at para 37<br>
R v Nadarajah, [http://canlii.ca/t/22dzm 2009 ONCA 118] (CanLII){{perONCA| JA}} at para 37<br>
R v Knox, [http://canlii.ca/t/gx5l5 2017 SKCA 8] (CanLII){{perSKCA| JA}} at para 16<br>
R v Knox, [http://canlii.ca/t/gx5l5 2017 SKCA 8] (CanLII){{perSKCA| JA}} at para 16<br>
R v Huard, [http://canlii.ca/t/g1n05 2013 ONCA 650] (CanLII){{perONCA| JA}}  at para 50<br>
R v Huard, [http://canlii.ca/t/g1n05 2013 ONCA 650] (CanLII){{perONCA| JA}}  at para 50<br>
R v Daley,  [http://canlii.ca/t/1v5dr 2007 SCC 53] (CanLII){{perSCC| J}}, per Bastarache J, at para 29<br>
R v Daley,  [http://canlii.ca/t/1v5dr 2007 SCC 53] (CanLII){{perSCC|Bastarache J}}{{at|29}}<br>
</ref>
</ref>
# the factual issues to be resolved;
# the factual issues to be resolved;
Line 193: Line 192:


===Deadlocked Juries===
===Deadlocked Juries===
Where the jury is deadlocked the judge may give an exhortation to encourage the jury to make effort to reach agreement. The judge must be careful and balanced during the exhortation to a deadlocked jury. The jury will likely be frustrated and disgruntled and so must be handled appropriately.<ref> R v R.M.G., [http://canlii.ca/t/1fr7s 1996 CanLII 176] (SCC), [1996] 3 SCR 362{{perSCC| J}}, per Cory J. at para 15</ref>
Where the jury is deadlocked the judge may give an exhortation to encourage the jury to make effort to reach agreement. The judge must be careful and balanced during the exhortation to a deadlocked jury. The jury will likely be frustrated and disgruntled and so must be handled appropriately.<ref> R v R.M.G., [http://canlii.ca/t/1fr7s 1996 CanLII 176] (SCC), [1996] 3 SCR 362{{perSCC|Cory J}}{{At|15}}</ref>


The judge should not do anything that may treat particular jurors as misunderstood or that pits one jurors against the others.
The judge should not do anything that may treat particular jurors as misunderstood or that pits one jurors against the others.

Revision as of 23:14, 30 December 2018

General Principles

The purpose of a jury charge is to "educate the decision-maker so that it will make an informed decision, not to tell the decision-make what decision to make".[1]

An accused person is "entitled to a properly, not perfectly, instructed jury".[2]

Judges are afforded some flexibility in the language they use in a jury instruction.[3]

It is through the "instructions that the jury must appreciate the value and effect of the evidence in the context of the legal issues."[4]

A jury charge must be "even-handed" and the instructions "fair and balanced." At no time should sides be taken or editorial comments made.[5]

The charge should not be a "partisan broadcast".[6]

A judge may never direct the jury to find an element proven in light of the evidence at trial. This error cannot be cured by s. 686(1)(b)(iii).[7]

A new trial is not warranted unless there is a "realistic possibility" that the instructions, within the context of the charges as a whole and the positions of the parties, may have misled the jury.[8]

Instructions are not to be reviewed "to determine the extent to which they adhere to or depart from some particular approach or specific formula". Rather, they must be examined "against their ability to fulfill the purpose for which those instructions are provided."[9]

A failure to object to a jury charge "affords some evidence" to suggest that the charge was not unfair, incomplete or unbalanced.[10] The evidence will especially persuasive where "counsel has had ample opportunity to review draft of proposed instructions and ample time to offer suggestions for inclusions, deletions and improvements". [11]

The instructing judge is responsible for "review of the evidence and ... to relate the evidence to the position of the defence"[12]

An instructing judge "must set out in plan and understandable terms the law that the jury must apply when assessing the facts".[13]

The "final instructions must leave the jury with a clear understanding of the factual issues to be resolved, the legal principles governing the factual issues, the evidence adduced at trial, the position of the parties and the evidence relevant to the positions of the parties on those issues".[14]

When reviewing the quality of instructions the judge "must not proceed on the assumption that jurors are morons, completely devoid of intelligence and totally incapable of understanding a rule of evidence".[15]

Except in rare circumstances, the "trial judge must review the substantial parts of the evidence and give the jury the position of the defence so that the jury can appreciate the value and effect of the evidence"[16]

Review of evidence should include not simply summary of witness evidence but also available exhibits.[17]

The trial judge should not share his evidence notes to the judge even if both counsel find it acceptable.[18]

Decision Trees
A decision tree given to the jury by the instructing judge does not constitute part of the instructions. It is a deliberative aid.[19]

The use of annotations on the decision tree to indicate the burden and standard of proof has been suggested as being "helpful".[20]

Presumptions
It is presumed that juries act reasonably in their verdict, are able to absorb the "gist" of the judge's instructions, and are able to follow them.[21]

Review
In appellate review of instructions, the issue is whether "in the context of the whole charge" whether there is a "reasonable possibility that the trial judges erroneous instructions may have misled the jury into improperly applying the [legal standard]".[22]

Evidence misleading the jury can come for sources including the matters bought up in post-charge instructions and questions from the jury.[23]

Model Instructions
Model jury instructions are meant to be a sample from which adjustments can be made to craft appropriate jury insturctions for a particular case.[24]

  1. ↑ R v Bradley, 2015 ONCA 738 (CanLII), per Watt JA at para 184
  2. ↑ R v PJB, 2012 ONCA 730 (CanLII), per JA at para 41
    R v Jacquard, 1997 CanLII 374 (SCC), [1997] 1 SCR 314, per J, at paras 1 to 2, 62
  3. ↑ R v Elder, 2015 ABCA 126 (CanLII), per JA, at para 13
    R v Araya, 2015 SCC 11 (CanLII), per J at para 3
    R v Avetysan, 2000 SCC 56 (CanLII), [2000] 2 SCR 745, per J, at para 9
  4. ↑ R v Karaibrahimovic 2002 ABCA 102 (CanLII), (2002), 164 CCC (3d) 431, per JA at para 33
  5. ↑ R v Largie [2010] OJ No 3384 (ONCA), 2010 ONCA 548 (CanLII), per JA
  6. ↑ Bradley at para 184
  7. ↑ R v Tehrankari, 2012 ONCA 718 (CanLII), per JA
  8. ↑ R v Leroux, 2008 ABCA 9 (CanLII), per JA at para 27 citing R v Heil, 2005 ABCA 397 (CanLII), per J
  9. ↑ Tomlinson, ONCA 158 (CanLII), per JA at para 150
    Jacquard, supra at paras 32 and 41
    MacKinnon, supra at para 27
  10. ↑ Bradley, supra at para 186
    R v Huard, 2013 ONCA 650 (CanLII), per JA at para 74
    Jacquard, supra at para 35 to 37
  11. ↑ Bradley, supra at para 186
    Huard, supra at para 74
  12. ↑ Melvin, supra at 31
    PJB at para 43
  13. ↑ R v Daley, 2007 SCC 53 (CanLII), per J at para 32 per Bastarache J.
  14. ↑ R v PJB, 2012 ONCA 730 (CanLII), per JA at 42
    Melvin, 2016 NSCA 52 (CanLII), per JA at para 31
  15. ↑ R v Lane and Ross, 1969 CanLII 545 (ONSC), [1970] 1 CCC 196, per Addy J
  16. ↑ Melvin, ibid. at 31 PJB, supra at para 44
  17. ↑ Eg see Melvin, supra at paras 39 to 40
  18. ↑ R v Bouchard, 2013 ONCA 791 (CanLII), per JA
  19. ↑ Bradley, supra at para 142
  20. ↑ R v Spaniver, 2006 SKCA 139 (CanLII), per JA at para 41
  21. ↑ R v Gallie, 2015 NSCA 50 (CanLII), per JA at para 38
    R v Corbett, [1988] 1 SCR 670, 1988 CanLII 80 (SCC), per J, paras 41-48, per Dickson, C.J.C.
    R v Elkins, 1995 CanLII 3510 (ON CA), [1995] O.J. No. 3228 (C.A.), per JA, para 27, per Doherty, J.A.
    R v Suzack, 2000 CanLII 5630 (ON CA), [2000] O.J. No. 100 (QL) (C.A.), per JA, at para 128, per Doherty, J.A.
    R v Carrière, 2001 CanLII 8609 (ON CA), [2001] O.J. No. 4157 (C.A.), per JA, at para 42, per Doherty, J.A.
    R v Ward, 2011 NSCA 78 (CanLII), per JA, paras 37-39, leave denied
    R v Greenwood, 2014 NSCA 80 (CanLII), per JA, para 143
  22. ↑ R v Brydon, 1995 CanLII 48 (SCC), per Lamer CJ at paras 21 and 25 - in context of the legal standard of proof beyond a reasonable doubt.
  23. ↑ Gallie, supra at para 60
  24. ↑ e.g. R v McNeil 2006 CanLII 33663 (ON CA), (2006), 84 O.R. (3d) 125 (C.A.), per JA, at para 21
    R v Rowe, 2011 ONCA 753 (CanLII), per JA at para 62

Components of a Jury Instruction

A recommended instruction should generally include some basic components such as:[1]

  • an explanation on the presumption of innocence;
  • an explanation of the burden of proof; and
  • an explanation of how to assess credibility and reliability of witnesses' testimony.

Any good instruction should include at least five components:[2]

  1. the legal framework, typically the elements of the offence or offences with which the accused is charged;
  2. the factual issues arising out of the legal framework that the jury must resolve;
  3. the material evidence relevant to these issues;
  4. the position of the Crown and defence on these issues; and
  5. the evidence supporting each of their positions on these issues.

The jury should be able to appreciate "the value and effect of that evidence, and how the law is to be applied to the facts as they find them".[3]

Elements of Clarity
The instructions must give the jury a clear understanding of:[4]

  1. the factual issues to be resolved;
  2. the legal principles governing the factual issues and the evidence adduced at trial;
  3. the positions of the parties; and
  4. the evidence relevant to the positions of the parties on the issues.
  1. ↑ R v Newton, 2017 ONCA 496 (CanLII), per JA at para 11
  2. ↑ Newton, ibid. at para 11
  3. ↑ Newton, ibid. at para 11
  4. ↑ R v P.J.B., 2012 ONCA 730 (CanLII), per JA at para 42 citing R v MacKinnon, 1999 CanLII 1723 (ONCA), per JA at para 27
    R v Nadarajah, 2009 ONCA 118 (CanLII), per JA at para 37
    R v Knox, 2017 SKCA 8 (CanLII), per JA at para 16
    R v Huard, 2013 ONCA 650 (CanLII), per JA at para 50
    R v Daley, 2007 SCC 53 (CanLII), per Bastarache J, at para 29

Pre-Charge Conference

Before beginning deliberations, the judge will hold a pre-charge conference where the parties will provide input on the form of the charge:

Pre-charge conference
650.1 A judge in a jury trial may, before the charge to the jury, confer with the accused or counsel for the accused and the prosecutor with respect to the matters that should be explained to the jury and with respect to the choice of instructions to the jury.
1997, c. 18, s. 78.


– CCC

Pre-charge conference should be held in the presence of the accused and on the court record.[1]

An agreement on instructions at the pre-charge conference, which includes an absence of objection, that are reflected in the trial judge's instructions is a "significant factor" in assessment the adequacy of the instructions on appeal. [2]

  1. ↑ R v Simon 2010 ONCA 754 (CanLII), per JA
  2. ↑ R v Bouchard, 2013 ONCA 791 (CanLII), per JA

Post-Charge Procedure

Once the jury has been charged, the jury is directed to "retire" to decide on the issues befor them.[1]

Where there are more that 12 jurors, the judge will perform a random draw of juror names to have them discharged until there are 12 remaining.[2]

  1. ↑ s. 652.1(1) states ("After the charge to the jury, the jury shall retire to try the issues of the indictment."
  2. ↑ see s. 652.1(2) for details on the process

Specific Instructions

Rhetorical Questions
Rhetorical questions are generally undesirable in the instructions as it may tend to show some bias.[1]

  1. ↑ R v Baltovich 2004 CanLII 45031 (ON CA), (2004), 73 O.R. (3d) 481, per JA, at para 146 ("[Rhetorical questions] should be avoided in the jury charge, lest the trial judge be seen as taking up the Crown's cause and casting off the mantle of objectivity.")

Instructions During Deliberations

Deadlocked Juries

Where the jury is deadlocked the judge may give an exhortation to encourage the jury to make effort to reach agreement. The judge must be careful and balanced during the exhortation to a deadlocked jury. The jury will likely be frustrated and disgruntled and so must be handled appropriately.[1]

The judge should not do anything that may treat particular jurors as misunderstood or that pits one jurors against the others. [2]

It is not relevant to examine whether the jurors were affected by any of the instructions of the judge.[3]

The judge must make it clear to the jury throughout his instructions that they are "not obliged to render a verdict" if they cannot reach a consensus.[4]

  1. ↑ R v R.M.G., 1996 CanLII 176 (SCC), [1996] 3 SCR 362, per Cory J, at para 15
  2. ↑ R v Vivian, 2012 ONCA 324 (CanLII), per JA at para 47
  3. ↑ Vivian at para 61
  4. ↑ See R v Chahal, 2008 BCCA 529 (CanLII), per JA

Jury Questions

During the deliberations of a jury, they are permitted to submit questions to the court and counsel. Jury questions indicate some of the problems the jurors are having in deliberating and seek help from the trial judge.[1]

Answers to questions carry "an influence far exceeding instructions given".[2]

Where a jury question is unclear, the judge should seek clarification before attempting to provide an answer.[3]

Jury questions must be answered "clearly, correctly and comprehensively".[4]

A proper answer should improve the jury’s “understanding of the particular aspects of the evidence that bear on their decision on each essential issue in the case.”[5]

However, the response should be timely as well. Delay without instructions the jury to cease deliberations where the question reflects a misunderstanding is open to risk of corrupting the verdict.[6]

A judge should not communicate with the jury by sending notes with unsolicited information without the input on counsel.[7]

Any errors in a response to a jury cannot be remedied simply by referring back to the correctness of original charge.[8]

An answer should never discourage further questions on any subject.[9]

In responding to a jury question, it is often advisable that the judge invite the jury to return with further questions if the response does not assist.[10]

In answering a question regarding the standard of proof of "beyond a reasonable doubt", there is nothing per se wrong with simply reciting the standard anew.[11]

It is an inadequate answer to respond "yes" to the jury question that I asked "do we consider all of the evidence for all charges?".[12]

A question may find it necessary to "instruct the jury in a manner that does not accord with the theory advanced by either Crown or defence counsel".[13] This is permissible because the jury is not bound by the opposing theories of Crown and defence.[14] However, limitations exist on this flexibility for the purpose of preserving trial fairness.[15]

  1. ↑ R v M.T., 2012 ONCA 511 (CanLII) at para 114 (questions "indicate that that at least some jurors are having a problem with an issue in the case.")
    R v W. (D.), 1991 CanLII 93 (SCC), [1991] 1 SCR 742, per J, at pp. 759-760
    R v WDS, 1994 CanLII 76 (SCC), [1994] 3 SCR 521, per J, at pp. 528-529 / para 14 to 18
  2. ↑ R v Grandine, 2017 ONCA 718 (CanLII), per JA at para 62
    R v Naglik, 1993 CanLII 64 (SCC), [1993] 3 S.C.R. 122, per J, at p. 139
    WDS, supra at para. 16
  3. ↑ R v Shannon, 2011 BCCA 270 (CanLII), per JA
  4. ↑ W.(D.), at pp. 759-760
    S.(W.D.) at 528, 530 (SCR) - it is judge's obligation to answer "fully" and "properly" with the assistance of counsel
    R v Layton, 2009 SCC 36 (CanLII), [2009] 2 SCR 540, per J, at para 20
    Grandine, supra at para 62
    R v Stubbs, 2013 ONCA 514 (CanLII), per JA at para 95
  5. ↑ PJB, supra, at para 44
  6. ↑ R v Ellis, 2013 ONCA 9 (CanLII), per JA at para 42
  7. ↑ R v Edwards, 2002 CanLII 41587 (ON CA), per JA
  8. ↑ S(WD) at pp. 530 to 531 (SCR)
  9. ↑ R v Layton, [2009] 2 SCR 540, SCC 36 (CanLII), per J at para 33
  10. ↑ Layton, 2008 MBCA 118 (CanLII), per JA
  11. ↑ Layton, ibid. at para 29, 32
  12. ↑ Melvin, supra at paras 52 to 53
  13. ↑ R v Ranger, 2003 CanLII 32900 (ONCA), per JA at para 135
    Grandine, supra at para 63
  14. ↑ Grandine, supra at para 63
  15. ↑ Grandine, supra at para 63
    R v Largie, 2010 ONCA 548 (CanLII), per JA at para. 161

Failing to Answer Jury Questions

Where a jury asks a question and then withdraws before it is answered by the judge will not render the verdict invalid. The judge need not answer the question for the jury.[1]

A jury may withdraw a question simply by announcing it is ready to give a verdict.[2]

It may be recommended that once the jury is ready despite not having the question answered, that the court canvas both counsel and the jury about whether the question should still be answered.[3]

  1. ↑ R v Sit (1989) 47 CCC (3d) 45 (ONCA), 1989 CanLII 7194 (ON CA), per JA at pp. 57-58
    see also R v Ellis, 2013 ONCA 9 (CanLII), per JA
  2. ↑ R v Lavoie, 1990 CanLII 4038 (NB CA), (1990), 107 N.B.R. (2d) 181 (N.B.C.A.), per JA
  3. ↑ R v Jones, 2011 ONCA 584 (CanLII), per JA at para 55, 56

Recharge of Jury

The answer may result in a "recharge" of the jury. These recharges "must be correct and comprehensive no matter how exemplary the original charge may have been".[1]

An error in recharge cannot be forgiven simply because the original charge was correct.[2] In fact, the more time that passes between the original charge and recharge, the greater imperative that the recharge be "correct and comprehensive".[3]

  1. ↑ R v S. (W.D.), 1994 CanLII 76 (SCC), [1994] 3 SCR 521, per J at pp. 530-531
  2. ↑ S(WD), ibid. at pp. 530-531
  3. ↑ S(WD), ibid. at p. 531

Errors in Instructions

Instructions must be "fair and balanced".[1]

A fair instruction requires that "the charge explain the theories of each side and review the salient facts in support of those theories.[2]

The appropriateness of instructions must be analyzed "as a whole and its overall effect".[3]

Where instructions are given on a point of law, the reviewing court should look at the instructions as a whole and consider whether the jury would not have understood the law correctly.[4]

Repetitions of instructions on law correctly may remedy a single instance of an incorrect instruction.[5]

A failure to give instruction on an issue can be a "non-direction amounting to a misdirection".[6]

A charge should not be "endlessly dissected and subjected to minute scrutiny and criticism".[7]

Closing arguments of counsel cannot have the effect of making inadequate instructuon become adequate and do not relieve the trial judge of thier uties in giving instructions..[8]

  1. ↑ R v Baltovich, 2004 CanLII 45031 (ON CA), (2004) 73 OR (3d) 481 (CA), per JA at para 118
    R v Jeanvenne, 2016 ONCA 101 (CanLII), per JA at para 31
  2. ↑ R v Daley, 2007 SCC 53 (CanLII), per J at para 29
    Jeanvenne, supra at para 31
  3. ↑ Daley, supra at para 31
    Jeanvenne, supra at para 33
  4. ↑ R v Rodgerson, 2014 ONCA 366 (CanLII), per JA, at paras 23 to 26 - instructions on murder
    R v Jaw, 2009 SCC 42 (CanLII), [2009] 3 SCR 26, per J, at para 32, per LeBel J. (“[a]n appellate court must examine the alleged error in the context of the entire charge and of the trial as a whole”)
  5. ↑ e.g. Rodgerson, supra - repeated instructions on murder corrected error
  6. ↑ R v Menard, 2009 BCCA 462 (CanLII), per JA
  7. ↑ R v Cooper, 1993 CanLII 147 (SCC), [1993] 1 SCR 146, per J, at p. 163
  8. ↑ R v Melvin, 2016 NSCA 52 (CanLII), per JA at paras 72 to 73 PJB at para 47

Appeal

See also: Appeals

Standard of Review
Misdirection of a jury (not including non-direction of a jury) is a question of law.[1]

Whether a judge erred in misdirecting or failing to direct a jury is reviewed on a standard of correctness.[2]

Functional Approach to Review
An appellate court should assess a jury charge "functionally". It is not an idealized approach considering whether better instructions could have been given.[3]

The adequacy of jury instructions is analyzed using "a functional approach" which is "based on the evidence at trial, the live issues raised and the submissions of counsel."[4]

The reviewing judge should determine whether the accused, based on the review of the whole charge, has had a fair trial. It is not to look for minute errors. [5]

The Court should consider whether the instructions had the ability to fulfill their purpose and not simply whether they diverted from a formula.[6]

This analysis must be in light of factors including:[7]

  • the live issues at trial,
  • the position of the parties,
  • the overall effect of the charge.


Jury's Failure to Follow Instructions
Evidence that the jury had demonstrably not followed the jury instructions may cause a miscarriage of justice.[8]

Defences
All defences that have an air of reality are to be put to the jury, even if not raised by counsel.[9]

  1. ↑ R v Luciano 2011 ONCA 89 (CanLII), per JA at para 70
  2. ↑ R v Waite, 2013 ABCA 257 (CanLII), per JA at para 11
  3. ↑ R v Jacquard (C.O.), 1997 CanLII 374 (SCC), [1997] 1 SCR 314, per J at para 32
    R v Cooper, 1993 CanLII 147 (SCC), [1993] 1 SCR 146, per J at pp. 163-164
  4. ↑ R v Howe, 2015 NSCA 84 (CanLII), per JA at para 67
  5. ↑ R v Korski (C.T.), 2009 MBCA 37 (CanLII), 236 Man.R. (2d) 259, per JA, at para 102
    Cooper at p. 163
    R v Luciano, 2011 ONCA 89 (CanLII), per JA at para 71
    Vézeau v The Queen, 1976 CanLII 7, [1977] 2 SCR 277, per J at p. 285
    R v Kociuk (R.J.), 2011 MBCA 85 (CanLII), per JA at paras 69 to 72
    Jacquard, supra
  6. ↑ R v MacKinnon 1999 CanLII 1723 (ON CA), (1999), 132 CCC (3d) 545 (Ont. C.A.), per JA, at para 27
  7. ↑ R v Johnson, 2017 NSCA 64 (CanLII), per JA at para 47
  8. ↑ R v Richard, 2013 MBCA 105 (CanLII), per JA
  9. ↑ R v Cinous, 2002 SCC 29 (CanLII), [2002] 2 SCR 3, per J

See Also

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