Infanticide (Offence)

Infanticide
	s. 233, 237 or 238 of the Crim. Code
Election / Plea
Crown Election	Indictment;
Jurisdiction	Prov. Court; Sup. Court w/ Jury (); Sup. Court w/ Judge-alone (); * Must be indictable. Preliminary inquiry also available.
Indictable Dispositions
Avail. Disp.	Discharge (730); Suspended Sentence (731(1)(a)); Fine (734); Fine + Probation (731(1)(b)); Jail (718.3, 787); Jail + Probation (731(1)(b)); Jail + Fine (734); Conditional Sentence (742.1); (* varies)
Minimum	None
Maximum	5 years incarceration or Life
Reference
	Offence Elements; Sentence Digests;

< Criminal Law/Sentencing
< Offences

Overview

Offences relating to infanticide are found in Part VIII of the Criminal Code concerning "Offences Against the Person and Reputation".

Pleadings

Offence Section	Offence Type	Crown Election	Defence Election s. 536(2)	Preliminary Inquiry
s. 237 [infanticide]	Hybrid Offence(s)			(under 14 years max)
s. 238 [killing child in act of birth]	Indictable Offence(s)	N/A		(life max)

Offences under s. 237 [infanticide] are hybrid with a Crown election. If prosecuted by indictment, there is a Defence election of Court under s. 536(2) to trial by provincial court, superior court judge-alone or superior court judge-and-jury.

Offences under s. 238 [killing child in act of birth] are straight indictable. There is a Defence election of Court under s. 536(2) to trial to trial in provincial court, superior court with a judge-alone (with or without a preliminary inquiry) or superior court with judge-and-jury (with or without a preliminary inquiry).

Release

Offence(s)	Appearance Notice by Peace Officer s. 497	Summons by Judge or Justice s. 508(1), 512(1), or 788	Release by Peace Officer on Undertaking s. 498, 499, and 501	Release By a Judge or Justice on a Release Order s. 515 to 519	Direct to Attend for Fingerprints, etc. Identification of Criminals Act s. 2 ID Crim. Act
s. 237 [infanticide]
s. 238 [killing child in act of birth]

When charged under s. 237 [infanticide], the accused can be given an appearance notice without arrest under s. 497 or a summons. If arrested, he can be released by the arresting officer under s. 498 or 499 on an undertaking with or without conditions. He can also be released by a justice under s. 515.

When charged under s. 238 [killing child in act of birth], the accused can be given a judicial summons without arrest. If arrested, he can be released by the arresting officer under s. 498 or 499 on an undertaking with or without conditions. He can also be released by a justice under s. 515.

Reverse Onus Bail

If police decide to bring the accused before a Justice pursuant to s. 503, there will be a presumption against bail (i.e. a reverse onus) if the offence, prosecuted by indictment, was committed:

while at large under s. 515 [bail release], 679 or 680 [release pending appeal or review of appeal] (s. 515(6)(a)(i));
"for the benefit of, at the direction of, or in association" with a criminal organization (s. 515(6)(a)(ii));
where the offence involved a weapon, being a firearm, cross-bow, prohibited weapon restricted weapon, prohibited device, ammunition, prohibited ammunition or explosive substance, while the accused was subject to a prohibition order preventing possession of these items (s. 515(6)(a)(viii)); or
where the accused is not "ordinarily a resident in Canada" (s. 515(6)(b)).

And, regardless of Crown election, if the offence alleged was one:

where the offence was an allegation of violence against an "intimate partner" and the accused had been previously convicted of an offence of violence against an "intimate partner" (s. 515(6)(b.1));
where the offence alleged is a breach under s. 145(2) to (5) while (s. 515(6)(c));
where the offence committed (or conspired to commit) was an offence under s. 5 to 7 of the CDSA that is punishable by life imprisonment (s. 515(6)(d));

Publication Ban

For all criminal or regulatory prosecutions, there is a discretionary general publication ban available on application of the Crown, victim or witness to prohibit the publishing of "any information that could identify the victim or witness" under s. 486.5(1) where it is "necessary" for the "proper administration of justice". Other available publication bans include prohibitions for publishing evidence or other information arising from a bail hearing (s. 517), preliminary inquiry (s. 539) or jury trial (s. 648). There is a mandatory publication ban in all youth prosecutions on information tending to identify young accused under s. 110 of the YCJA or young victims under s. 111 of the YCJA.

Offence Designations

Offence(s)	Wiretap Eligible s. 183	Dangerous Offender Designated Offence s. 752	Serious Personal Injury Offence s. 752	AG Consent Required	Serious Criminality Offence s. 36 IRPA
s. 237 [infanticide]
s. 238 [killing child in act of birth]

Offences under s. 238 [killing child in act of birth] are designated "serious personal injury" offences under s. 752(a) only if it has a maximum penalty of 10 years incarceration or more and involves "use or attempted use of violence against another person" or "conduct endangering or likely to endanger the life or safety of another person or inflicting or likely to inflict severe psychological damage on another person".

See below in Ancillary Sentencing Orders for details on designations relating to sentencing orders.

Offence Wording

Infanticide

233 A female person commits infanticide when by a wilful act or omission she causes the death of her newly-born child, if at the time of the act or omission she is not fully recovered from the effects of giving birth to the child and by reason thereof or of the effect of lactation consequent on the birth of the child her mind is then disturbed.
R.S., c. C-34, s. 216

– CCC (CanLII), (DOJ)

Note up: 233

Punishment for infanticide

237 Every female person who commits infanticide is guilty of

(a) an indictable offence and liable to imprisonment for a term of not more than five years; or

(b) an offence punishable on summary conviction.

R.S., 1985, c. C-46, s. 237; 2019, c. 25, s. 79

– CCC (CanLII), (DOJ)

Note up: 237

Killing unborn child in act of birth

238 (1) Every one who causes the death, in the act of birth, of any child that has not become a human being, in such a manner that, if the child were a human being, he would be guilty of murder, is guilty of an indictable offence and liable to imprisonment for life.

Saving

(2) This section does not apply to a person who, by means that, in good faith, he considers necessary to preserve the life of the mother of a child, causes the death of that child.
R.S., c. C-34, s. 221.

– CCC (CanLII), (DOJ)

Note up: 238 (1) and (2)

Draft Form of Charges

See also: Draft Form of Charges

		Pre-ambles
		"THAT [accused full name] stands charged that, between the <DATE> day of <MONTH>, <YEAR> and <DATE> day of <MONTH>, <YEAR>***, at or near <COMMUNITY/TOWN/CITY>, <PROVINCE>, he [or she]..." OR
		"THAT [accused full name] stands charged that, on or about the <DATE> day of <MONTH>, <YEAR>, at or near <COMMUNITY/TOWN/CITY>, <PROVINCE>, he [or she]..." OR
		"AND FURTHER at the same time and place aforesaid, he [or she]..."
Code Section	Subject of Offence	Draft Wording
237	infanticide	"..., begin a female person, did commit infanticide, to wit: [conduct], contrary to section 237 of the Criminal Code.

Proof of the Offence

Proving Infanticide under s. 233 and 237 should include: ☐ identity of accused as culprit ☐ date and time of the incident ☐ jurisdiction (incl. region and province) ☐ the culprit is a female ☐ the culprit does a "wilful act or omssion"; ☐ the prohibited conduct "causes the death of her newly-born child"; ☐ at the time of the prohibited conduct "she is not fully recovered from the effects of giving birth to the child"; ☐ objective foreseeability of the risk of bodily harm to the child from the act or omission ☐ the new-born is that of the accused	Proving killing unborn child in act of birth under s. 238 should include: ☐ identity of accused as culprit ☐ date and time of the incident ☐ jurisdiction (incl. region and province) ☐ the culprit does anything; ☐ the prohibited conduct is during "the act of child birth"; ☐ the prohibited conduct "causes the death ... of any child that has not become a human being"; ☐ the prohibited conduct was "in such a manner that, if the child were a human being" the culprit "would be guilty of murder"; and ☐ the prohibited conduct was not "by means that, in good faith, he considers to necessary to preserve the life of the mother of a child".

Interpretation of the Offence

Infanticide is both a discrete indictable offence and also a partial defence to murder.^[1]

The mens rea requires act act or omission along with an "objective foreseeability of the risk of bodily harm to the child from that assault."^[2]

Infanticide is culpable homicide that is "significantly less culpable than murder and even manslaughter."^[3]

The usual burden on the Crown to disprove applicable defences is required for the offence of infanticide.^[4]

The claim of infanticide as a defence requires the evidentiary foundation establishing on "air of reality" before there is any obligation on the crown to negate the defence of infanticide beyond a reasonable doubt and before it is put to the jury. ^[5]

A jury should be instructed to analyze the evidence in the following order:^[6]

Whether the accused caused a child's death;
Whether, in causing the death, the accused committed culpable homicide under section 225.
Whether the accused committed infanticide
whether the accused committed murder

↑ R v LB, 2011 ONCA 153 (CanLII), 270 CCC (3d) 208, per Doherty JA, at para 104
↑ LB, ibid., at para 121
↑ LB, ibid., at para 121
↑ R v Effert, 2009 ABQB 368 (CanLII), 244 CCC (3d) 510, per Veit J
↑ LB, supra
↑ LB, supra

When Child Becomes a Human

See also: Abortion (Offence)

When child becomes human being

223 (1) A child becomes a human being within the meaning of this Act when it has completely proceeded, in a living state, from the body of its mother, whether or not

(a) it has breathed;

(b) it has an independent circulation; or

(c) the navel string is severed.

Killing child

(2) A person commits homicide when he causes injury to a child before or during its birth as a result of which the child dies after becoming a human being.
R.S., c. C-34, s. 206.

– CCC (CanLII), (DOJ)

Note up: 223 (1) and (2)

A foetus is not a "human being" or "person" within the meaning of the Criminal Code.^[1]

↑ R v Sullivan, 1991 CanLII 85 (SCC), [1991] 1 SCR 489, per Lamer CJ

Compellability

The accused's spouse is a compellable witness for the Crown under s. 4(4) of the Evidence Act.

Res Judicata

662
[omitted (1) and (2)]

Conviction for infanticide or manslaughter on charge of murder

(3) Subject to subsection (4) [conviction for concealing body of child where murder or infanticide charged], where a count charges murder and the evidence proves manslaughter or infanticide but does not prove murder, the jury may find the accused not guilty of murder but guilty of manslaughter or infanticide, but shall not on that count find the accused guilty of any other offence.

Conviction for concealing body of child where murder or infanticide charged

(4) Where a count charges the murder of a child or infanticide and the evidence proves the commission of an offence under section 243 [concealing body of child] but does not prove murder or infanticide, the jury may find the accused not guilty of murder or infanticide, as the case may be, but guilty of an offence under section 243 [concealing body of child].
[omitted (5) and (6)]
R.S., 1985, c. C-46, s. 662; R.S., 1985, c. 27 (1st Supp.), s. 134; 2000, c. 2, s. 3; 2008, c. 6, s. 38; 2018, c. 21, s. 20.
[annotation(s) added]

– CCC (CanLII), (DOJ)

Note up: 662 (3) and (4)

Act or Omission

No acquittal unless act or omission not wilful

663 Where a female person is charged with infanticide and the evidence establishes that she caused the death of her child but does not establish that, at the time of the act or omission by which she caused the death of the child,

(a) she was not fully recovered from the effects of giving birth to the child or from the effect of lactation consequent on the birth of the child, and

(b) the balance of her mind was, at that time, disturbed by reason of the effect of giving birth to the child or of the effect of lactation consequent on the birth of the child,

she may be convicted unless the evidence establishes that the act or omission was not willful.
R.S., c. C-34, s. 590.

– CCC (CanLII), (DOJ)

Note up: 663

Participation of Third Parties

See also: Role of the Victim and Third Parties and Testimonial Aids for Young, Disabled or Vulnerable Witnesses

Testimonial Aids

Certain persons who testify are entitled to make application for the use of testimonial aids: Exclusion of Public (s. 486), Use of a Testimonial Screen (s. 486), Access to Support Person While Testifying (s. 486.1), Close Proximity Video-link Testimony (s. 486.2), Self-Represented Cross-Examination Prohibition Order (s. 486.3), and Witness Security Order (s. 486.7).

A witness, victim or complainant may also request publication bans (s. 486.4, 486.5) and/or a Witness Identity Non-disclosure Order (s. 486.31). See also, Publication Bans, above.

On Finding of Guilt

Offence(s)	Victim Notice of Agreement s. 606(4.1) [SPIO]	Victim Queried for Interest in Agreement s. 606(4.2) [5+ years]	Victim Notice for Restitution s. 737.1	Victim Notice of Impact Statement s. 722(2)
s. 237 [infanticide]
s. 238 [killing child in act of birth]

Under s. 738, a judge must inquire from the Crown before sentencing whether "reasonable steps have been taken to provide the victims with an opportunity to indicate whether they are seeking restitution for their losses and damages".

Under s. 722(2), the judge must inquire "[a]s soon as feasible" before sentencing with the Crown "if reasonable steps have been taken to provide the victim with an opportunity to prepare" a victim impact statement. This will include any person "who has suffered, or is alleged to have suffered, physical or emotional harm, property damage or economic loss" as a result of the offence. Individuals representing a community impacted by the crime may file a statement under s. 722.2.

Sentencing Principles and Ranges

See also: Purpose and Principles of Sentencing, Sentencing Factors Relating to the Offender, and Sentencing Factors Relating to the Offence

Sentencing Profile

Maximum Penalties

Offence(s)	Crown Election	Maximum Penalty
s. 237 [infanticide]	N/A	5 years incarceration
s. 238 [killing child in act of birth]	N/A	life incarceration

Offences under s. 237 [infanticide] and 238 [killing child in act of birth] are straight indictable. The maximum penalty is 5 years incarceration under s. 237 and life incarceration under s. 238.

Minimum Penalties

These offences have no mandatory minimum penalties.

Available Dispositions

Offence(s)	Crown Election	Discharge s. 730	Suspended Sentence s. 731(1)(a)	Stand-alone Fine s. 731(1)(b)	Custody s. 718.3, 787	Custody and Probation s. 731(1)(b)	Custody and Fine s. 734	Conditional Sentence (CSO) s. 742.1
s. 237 [infanticide]	N/A
s. 238 [killing child in act of birth]	N/A

For offences under s. 237 [infanticide], all dispositions are available. The judge may order a discharge (s. 730), suspended sentence (s. 731(1)(a)), fine (s. 731(1)(b)), custody (s. 718.3, 787), custody with probation (s. 731(1)(b)), custody with a fine (s. 734), or a conditional sentence (s. 742.1).

Offences under s. 238 [killing child in act of birth] are ineligible for a conditional sentence order under s. 742.1(c), when prosecuted by indictment, as the maximum period of incarceration is 14 years or life.

If convicted under s. 238 [killing child in act of birth] a discharge is not available under s. 730(1) as it is "an offence for which a minimum punishment is prescribed by law or an offence punishable by imprisonment for fourteen years or for life".

Consecutive Sentences

There are no statutory requirements that the sentences be consecutive.

Principles

Ranges

see also: Infanticide (Sentencing Cases)

Ancillary Sentencing Orders

See also: Ancillary Orders

Offence-specific Orders

Order	Conviction	Description
DNA Orders	s. 233 or 238	For offences under s. 233, as listed under s. 487.04(a.1) to (c.01), (c.03) or (d), a DNA Order is a presumptive mandatory order as a primary designated offence under s. 487.051(2), but the judge may exempt the offender if it is established that "the impact of such an order on their privacy and security of the person would be grossly disproportionate to the public interest in the protection of society and the proper administration of justice, to be achieved through the early detection, arrest and conviction of offenders." For conviction under s. 238, a DNA order is discretionary as a secondary designated offence listed under s. 487.04 (a) or (b).

General Sentencing Orders

Order	Conviction	Description
Non-communication order while offender in custody (s. 743.21)	any	The judge has the discretion to order that the offender be prohibited "from communicating...with any victim, witness or other person" while in custody except where the judge "considers [it] necessary" to communicate with them.
Restitution Orders (s. 738)	any	A discretionary Order is available for things such as the replacement value of the property; the pecuniary damages incurred from harm, expenses fleeing a domestic partner; or certain expenses arising from the commission of an offence under s.402.2 or 403.
Victim Fine Surcharge (s. 737)	any	A discretionary surcharge under s. 737 of 30% of any fine order imposed, $100 per summary conviction or $200 per indictable conviction. If the offence occurs on or after October 23, 2013, the order has smaller minimum amounts (15%, $50, or $100).

General Forfeiture Orders

Forfeiture	Conviction	Description
Forfeiture of Proceeds of Crime (s. 462.37(1) or (2.01))	any	Where there is a finding of guilt for an indictable offence under the Code or the CDSA in which property is "proceeds of crime" and offence was "committed in relation to that property", the property shall be forfeited to His Majesty the King on application of the Crown. NB: does not* apply to summary offences*.
Fine in Lieu of Forfeiture (s. 462.37(3))	any	Where a Court is satisfied an order for the forfeiture of proceeds of crime under s. 462.37(1) or (2.01) can be made, but that property cannot be "made subject to an order", then the Court "may" order a fine in "an amount equal to the value of the property". Failure to pay the fine will result in a default judgement imposing a period of incarceration.
Forfeiture of Weapons or Firearms (s. 491)	any	Where there is finding of guilt for an offence where a "weapon, an imitation firearm, a prohibited device, any ammunition, any prohibited ammunition or an explosive substance was used in the commission of [the] offence and that thing has been seized and detained", or "that a person has committed an offence that involves, or the subject-matter of which is, a firearm, a cross-bow, a prohibited weapon, a restricted weapon, a prohibited device, ammunition, prohibited ammunition or an explosive substance has been seized and detained, that the item be an enumerated weapon or related item be connected to the offence", then there will be a mandatory forfeiture order. However, under s. 491(2), if the lawful owner "was not a party to the offence" and the judge has "no reasonable grounds to believe that the thing would or might be used in the commission of an offence", then it should be returned to the lawful owner.
Forfeiture of Offence-related Property (s. 490.1)	any	Where there is a finding of guilt for an indictable offence, "any property is offence-related property" where (a) by means or in respect of which an indictable offence under this Act or the Corruption of Foreign Public Officials Act is committed, (b) that is used in any manner in connection with the commission of such an offence, or (c) that is intended to be used for committing such an offence". Such property is to be forfeited to Her Majesty in right of the province. NB: does not* apply to summary offences*.